Pragmatism, << PRAG muh tihz uhm, >> is a philosophy that attempts to apply the methods of science to philosophy. Its central idea is that the meaning and truth of an idea are determined by the idea’s effects in practice and on conduct. Three American philosophers—Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey—developed Pragmatism. Peirce originated the philosophy, James made it popular, and Dewey extended it to key areas of life. Each of these men interpreted Pragmatism in his own way.
Peirce first presented the basic ideas of Pragmatism in a series of essays called “Illustrations of the Logic of Science” (1877-1878). Peirce conceived of belief as something on which we are prepared to act, not just as a state of mind. He defined belief as a habit or rule of action. He called doubt (the opposite of belief) an unsatisfactory state from which we struggle to free ourselves. For Peirce, thinking, or inquiry, was the struggle to eliminate the irritation of doubt. Peirce thus regarded inquiry as a practical activity—not just something that goes on in our heads. Inquiry aims to eliminate doubt by arriving at a settled belief.
Peirce’s writings were technical and attracted little attention when they were published. Pragmatism as a philosophical movement began in 1898, when William James restated Peirce’s ideas in more popular language. According to James’s interpretation of Peirce, the concrete meaning of any abstract or general proposition can be traced to a particular concrete consequence in our future practical experience. Therefore, supposedly different ideas that have identical consequences in practice are really the same idea expressed in different words.
James’s interpretation of Pragmatism stated that the meaning of an abstract idea is determined by the idea’s effects on one who believes it. James wrote that a true idea is one that can be verified, that “works,” and that satisfies. According to this concept, truth is changeable. Because a true idea is one that agrees with reality, James concluded that we can make ideas true by our actions and change the world in which we live.
John Dewey was greatly influenced by the English biologist Charles Darwin and Darwin’s theory of evolution. Dewey conceived of thought and of the mind as instruments developed in the course of evolution to allow human beings to reshape their environment. Dewey’s version of Pragmatism, later called Instrumentalism, stated that all ideas are instruments. Therefore, true ideas are those that work best for attaining human goals. Dewey urged that philosophy become a tool for dealing with the specific problems of all human beings rather than with the remote problems of philosophers. Dewey advocated that the method of science be used to reshape education, morals, politics, and society.
Pragmatism became the most important philosophical movement in the United States during the early 1900’s, and it has had an enormous influence on American life. Pragmatism has been called a typically American philosophy because of its basic optimism, its emphasis on action, and its belief in a future that can be changed by human ideas and efforts. Many people claim that Pragmatism expresses the essential American character.
