Teaching is the act of helping other people learn. It is one of the most important ways that people relate to one another. Teaching helps people acquire the knowledge they need to become responsible citizens, to earn a living, and to lead useful, rewarding lives. Teaching also transfers knowledge from one generation to the next. Without teachers, people would have to learn everything for themselves. Few people could learn enough on their own to get along in the world. Society would change greatly as human beings lost the knowledge, skills, and ideals inherited from past generations.
Much teaching takes place outside school. In homes, for example, parents communicate values and teach their children many types of skills and habits. Businesses and industries teach their employees necessary job skills. Children eagerly share new abilities and information with one another. But when most people speak of teaching, they mean the instruction provided in schools by professional teachers. More people engage in teaching than in any other profession. Tens of millions of men and women throughout the world are teachers.
Teaching developed into a profession after the early 1800’s, when the first teacher-training schools were founded in Europe. Before that time, schoolteachers received little or no special training. Today, most countries require teachers to complete a specialized training program and to meet professional standards of skill, performance, and conduct. For detailed information about the history of teaching, see Education (History).
Teaching as a profession
Teachers’ skills and attitudes influence everything that happens in their classrooms. During the years that young people spend in school, teachers are among the most important people in their lives. Good teachers know their subjects and understand the material that they are teaching. They present lessons in creative ways that help students of different ability levels and learning styles master the material.
Teachers often help students as much by personal example as they do by offering instruction. Students who see their teachers demonstrate patience, trustworthiness, attention to work, and love of learning may be encouraged to develop similar qualities in themselves. Students may also accept assistance more readily from a teacher whom they respect and admire.
For schoolteachers, practical day-to-day aspects of their jobs include (1) preparing to teach classes; (2) guiding and assisting student learning; (3) checking student progress; and (4) duties outside the classroom.
Preparing to teach classes.
Elementary-school and high-school teachers have guidelines to help them plan their teaching. One of the most important guidelines is the curriculum, a broad educational plan that outlines subjects that should be taught and other learning activities. In some states, local school boards decide the curriculum. But in many cases, they follow standards established by state, provincial, or territorial governments. Many school boards also involve teachers in planning the curriculum. Teachers are often evaluated according to student performance on tests based on curriculum objectives.
Many teachers develop a strategy called a daily lesson plan to break the curriculum into units for each class session. To develop the lesson plan, a teacher must review subject matter, prepare learning activities, and plan special projects.
Guiding and assisting student learning.
At times, teachers guide the learning of individual students. In other learning situations, teachers offer guidance to small or large groups. Even when dealing with students as a group, a good teacher remains concerned with the individual progress of each student.
Teachers have long depended on textbooks and other printed materials to assist learning. Teachers also use a great variety of teaching aids called audio-visual materials that range from such simple devices as chalkboards to complicated digital multimedia systems. Since the 1950’s, many new devices and techniques have been adapted for classroom use. These advanced learning aids include computers, educational television, and language laboratories. School systems now expect teachers to have sufficient computer skills to guide students in the use of computers and other technologies in their classrooms.
Computer software, also called computer programs, provides many types of lessons that students can use at their own pace. For example, drill-and-practice programs imitate flashcards. Programs called simulations create computer representations of such realistic situations as dissecting a frog. Word-processing programs enable students to use computers for writing and editing. With computers connected to the Internet, students can communicate by e-mail and do research. The Internet gives students access to a vast amount of audio and visual information in a matter of seconds.
Teachers generally select teaching methods and materials that are suited to the different abilities, ages, and needs of their classes. Preschool teachers, for example, use educational toys and games to attract and hold the interest of young children. Many teachers try to choose instructional materials that reflect students’ personal concerns and experiences. For example, a teacher of reading in a city school might select textbooks that relate to urban life.
One challenge facing teachers is discovering the best way that each individual student learns. The theory of multiple intelligences, put forth by the American psychologist Howard Gardner, has influenced many teachers. This theory suggests that there are a number of types of intelligence, such as linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, and musical intelligence, and therefore a number of ways to learn. Building on Gardner’s theory, many teachers have developed a wide variety of methods to present information to their students. Such methods include the use of music, art activities, multimedia presentations, and field trips.
Teachers must also take into account the differing needs and abilities of individual students. Teachers may use special materials or specific teaching strategies to help students who have unique learning challenges or other exceptional needs. For more information on how teachers assist student learning, see Education (The study of learning and teaching).
Checking student progress.
Most teachers give formal and informal written or oral tests to help evaluate the progress of their students. By comparing test results among individuals, teachers can discover which students need special help and decide what kind of help they need. By evaluating the performance of an entire group, teachers can judge the effectiveness of their teaching methods and materials.
Most schools group students in grades according to age. In these schools, teachers use test results, homework, and other assignments to give students specific marks (ratings) in their courses. Nongraded schools do not group students according to age. Instead, students advance in each subject at their own pace. They attend classes with other students of any age who work at the same level. In most of these schools, teachers give general evaluations rather than specific marks. The evaluations may be written, or a teacher may meet with students and their parents to discuss each student’s progress. For more information about school tests and how they are used, see the article Testing.
Duties outside the classroom.
Many teachers have a variety of duties in addition to their teaching responsibilities. They may be required to supervise lunchrooms, playgrounds, or study sessions. Teachers advise, sponsor, or coach such student groups as hobby clubs or sports teams. Many teachers serve as official or unofficial student counselors during or after school hours.
Most teachers also take part in professional activities outside school. Conferences provide an opportunity to meet with other teachers and explore issues of mutual interest. Many teachers further their education by taking advanced courses in college or study trips.
Becoming a teacher
A person who wants to become a teacher should like working with people and get satisfaction from helping them succeed. Good teachers have a thorough knowledge of the subjects they teach and know how to make these subjects interesting. They speak and write effectively and enjoy communicating. The best teachers make learning enjoyable for all their students. They realize that some students find learning difficult and that such students require extra patience and steady encouragement.
Most countries also require teachers to have certain types of education and professional certification. The requirements vary from country to country. This section deals chiefly with the United States and Canada, but many countries follow similar procedures.
Teacher-training programs.
Almost all teacher-training programs in the United States and Canada are offered at general colleges or universities. Most U.S. teacher-training programs include three main types of courses: (1) general education courses, also called liberal arts courses; (2) professional teaching courses; and (3) advanced courses in a particular area of study, such as English or mathematics. Many U.S. programs are accredited by the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (formerly National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education). Canada’s teacher-training programs are similar to those in the United States.
Training for elementary-school teachers is different from training for high-school teachers. During the first two years in college, elementary-school teachers-in-training take general education courses in many areas of study. General education requirements might include courses in history, foreign languages, mathematics, sciences, and computer science. These courses provide basic familiarity with many subjects. General courses also develop intellectual curiosity, critical thinking, and the ability to express ideas effectively. In addition to general education requirements, future high-school teachers also take courses in their major subject, such as English, mathematics, science, or social studies.
During their second two years, teaching students begin to take professional training courses in such subjects as child development and instructional methods, and instructional technology. Also during their second two years, some elementary-school teaching students specialize in a particular subject called the major subject. Many students choose the area in which they plan to teach—for example, history, mathematics, or biology—as their major subject. High-school teaching students complete courses in their major subjects.
At one time, many teaching students majored in education and had no specialized area of study except for their professional training courses. But school districts now prefer to hire teachers who have majored in a particular subject.
During their final year of training, aspiring teachers perform student teaching. In student teaching, a trainee teaches classes under the guidance of an experienced teacher. Some programs require education majors to complete a student internship during their final year.
Certification of teachers.
In the United States, every state requires public elementary- and high-school teachers to obtain a teaching certificate before they may teach in that state. The certificate provides official recognition that teachers meet the state’s basic requirements for professional education and certain other conditions. Some states also require certification to teach in a preschool, private school, or public community college. Teachers in four-year colleges and universities do not need a certificate. Instead, they must obtain an advanced degree and demonstrate their teaching ability through satisfactory on-the-job performance.
Almost all states issue separate certificates for elementary- and high-school teachers. Every state requires beginning teachers to be college graduates. Teachers must also have completed a professional training program that prepares them to teach in either elementary or high school. In addition, high-school teachers must be qualified to teach a particular subject. Many states also require such qualification for elementary-school teachers. Some teachers in special fields earn certificates that enable them to teach at both the elementary and high school levels. These fields include art, music, and the education of children with exceptional needs.
Most states issue special certificates for such positions as school principal, school librarian, and guidance counselor. People in these careers must meet the basic requirements for a teaching certificate and have special training for each particular position. Classroom assistants called teacher aides, also known as paraprofessional teachers, may not need a professional teaching certificate. Teacher aides work under the supervision of a professional teacher to assist with classroom activities and give students individual attention.
Most states issue an initial certificate to new teachers who meet the basic professional requirements. Teachers may apply for an advanced certificate after they have taught a certain number of years. Many states also require additional college courses or a master’s degree for advanced certification. A few states issue advanced certificates to new teachers who meet a higher level of requirements than those for basic certification. Some states issue advanced certificates on a permanent basis. Other states require teachers to renew their certificate every few years. About half the states recognize certification from other states. The rest require teachers from out of state to take certain courses or to pass a special examination.
A national certification movement has sought to improve teaching by creating high standards of training and performance for teachers throughout the United States. The nonprofit National Board for Professional Teaching Standards was founded in 1987 to develop these standards and grant national certification. Since its founding, tens of thousands of teachers have achieved board certification in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.
Public elementary- and high-school teachers in Canada must also have a teaching certificate. Each province and territory sets the requirements for its own certificates. Most provinces require elementary- and high-school teachers to have a three- or four-year college degree and a year or more of teacher-training courses.
Job opportunities.
Schools in the United States and Canada hire new teachers each year. Some openings occur because experienced teachers retire or leave to pursue other careers. Growth or decline in local population affects the number of teachers needed in particular communities. Some changes in population affect the teacher needs of entire nations. For example, from 1946 to 1964, the United States experienced a sharp rise in birth rate called the baby boom. The baby boom led to rising school enrollments and a teacher shortage in the 1950’s and 1960’s. In the late 1980’s and 1990’s, the U.S. birth rate increased again, contributing to another teacher shortage. Most states offer alternative certification programs in times of shortages.
The demand for teachers in the United States and Canada varies somewhat by subject area, grade level, and location. For example, there is generally a demand for teachers of mathematics and the sciences. Teaching jobs are usually available in the education of children with disabilities, gifted children, or other exceptional students. Many communities need teachers of vocational education, which prepares students for jobs in such skilled areas as carpentry and automobile repair. Demand generally exists for preschool teachers, school administrators, guidance counselors, librarians, and psychologists. Many rural areas and poor neighborhoods in large cities experience chronic shortages of teachers in all subjects.
At one time, almost all elementary-school teachers in the United States and Canada were women, and almost all college and university teachers were men. But this situation has slowly changed. Men now make up a significant percentage of elementary-school teachers. Women also hold a growing number of teaching posts at colleges and universities. Teaching jobs in high schools are divided fairly equally between the sexes.
Employment practices.
In most public school districts in the United States, the local school board hires teachers. Most boards sign a contract with every teacher they hire. In the contract, the board agrees to pay a certain salary for the teacher’s services. The contract covers a specified period, after which a new contract must be signed. In many school districts, a teachers union or other professional organization also signs a master contract with the school board. This contract covers not only the teachers who belong to the organization but also all other teachers in the district, including any new teachers the school board hires. Before signing the contract, the organization tries to obtain from the board the highest possible salaries and other benefits for the teachers. The master contract is good for only a certain period. A new contract must then be signed after the teachers organization and the board have again agreed to its terms.
Most colleges and universities in the United States and Canada grant teachers tenure. Tenure means that after a certain period of service, teachers cannot be dismissed except for certain limited reasons that are specified in their contracts. Most school districts in the two countries also grant tenure to public-school teachers.
Rewards of teaching.
For many teachers, the greatest reward of teaching is the opportunity to work with and influence young people. Teachers enjoy seeing students succeed at their studies and develop into productive, responsible citizens.
In most U.S. school districts, teachers receive pay raises according to a set salary schedule. The schedule grants salary increases for each additional year or other period of service and for additional professional training. Teachers organizations generally seek to raise scheduled salaries when they work out a new master contract with a school board. Some U.S. school districts use a merit pay system or a differentiated staffing system to grant pay increases. The merit pay system bases pay increases on student performance rather than teacher experience and additional training. The differentiated staffing system divides the teaching positions in a school into various levels according to the amount of responsibility they involve. Teachers receive raises mainly by being promoted to a higher level.
Many colleges and universities, and some school districts, grant teachers a period of professional leave called a sabbatical after a certain number of years of service. Many sabbaticals consist of a semester’s leave of absence with full pay. Teachers are expected to use a sabbatical to further their professional growth.
Continuing professional development.
All teachers are expected to continue their professional growth throughout their careers. Many teachers use their vacation time to take advanced college courses or to attend meetings for teachers in their field. Many school districts provide in-service training, which helps experienced, working teachers improve their teaching. Such training for teachers may include conferences, workshops, or special reading materials. A variety of journals and other publications help teachers keep informed about developments in their field.
Teachers organizations.
In the United States, teachers may join a number of professional organizations. The National Education Association (NEA) has more teachers as members than any other U.S. educational organization. It has branches in every state and in many cities and towns. The NEA works chiefly to raise educational standards and to improve the pay and working conditions of teachers. The American Federation of Teachers (AFT) is a national teachers union that works to improve teachers’ salaries and working conditions and to increase student achievement. Hundreds of local teachers unions throughout the United States are associated with the AFT. In some states, the NEA and the AFT work together to protect teachers’ rights and influence educational policymaking.
Many U.S. teachers organizations concentrate on a particular field, such as English, mathematics, or special education. For example, the National Council of Teachers of English is an organization for English instructors at all school levels. The National Catholic Educational Association offers membership to educators and administrators in Roman Catholic schools. The Association of Teacher Educators works to promote quality programs for teacher education.
Canada has a number of large provincial and local teachers organizations and unions with goals similar to those of the NEA and AFT. The Canadian Education Association is a national organization that works to improve the quality of education throughout Canada. The ASCD (formerly the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development) brings together all levels of professional educators from the United States, Canada, and other countries to improve education.
Current issues in teaching
In many countries, a period of intense social change began in the 1960’s and continued for several decades. One such change was a growing expectation that authorities and institutions should respect and respond to the needs of individuals. In schools, this expectation led to reduced emphasis on group instruction and increased focus on individual development. Parents began to believe that schools should appreciate and encourage different learning styles. Classrooms should offer good experiences for children of all races, cultures, and physical and intellectual ability levels.
Family structures and child care arrangements also changed during this time. Many women began to work outside the home and many children began living in single-parent homes. Stress on families put pressure on teachers to provide increased support and services for students. Curriculums expanded to cover many new subjects, including such areas as sex education, drug misuse awareness, and multicultural appreciation.
This focus on individual students and expanded curriculums increased work for teachers. Some teachers responded to the growing demands of their jobs by going on strike for higher pay and better working conditions. Communities have reacted in various ways to requests by teachers for more pay and recognition. Some people question the right of teachers to strike for any reason. Some communities have turned down tax increases for education because voters feel unable to pay the added taxes. Other districts have approved tax increases for educational funding.
The debate about the changing role of schools and teachers ranges over many issues. Two of the most important issues relate to (1) the effectiveness of teaching and (2) the effectiveness of teacher training.
The effectiveness of teaching.
Many people have urged that teachers be required to prove that they teach well before they are granted pay raises. One means of determining teacher effectiveness is called an accountability system. In education, accountability systems assume that the quality of teaching has a direct effect on how well students learn. These systems hold teachers accountable—that is, responsible—for their students’ level of achievement.
A number of states and local school districts have established accountability systems. The systems differ, but most require a method of teacher evaluation. Some evaluations rely on tests to see if students have achieved desired learning goals. Other systems require evaluation of teachers by administrators or supervisors. In most accountability systems, a teacher who continually receives poor evaluations faces dismissal.
Many teachers oppose accountability. They feel that many factors in addition to the quality of teaching affect how well students learn. Such factors include home and social environments, size of classes, and the availability of equipment and supplies.
The effectiveness of teacher training.
Ideas about how to train teachers to help other people learn have changed over the years. The first professional teacher-training programs in the United States were established in the mid-1800’s at institutions called normal schools. Normal schools offered two-year courses of study that emphasized practical skills needed by teachers.
By the 1970’s, most teacher-training programs had become part of colleges and universities. Many people felt that extending teacher training had created too much emphasis on educational theory. As a result, an approach to teacher training called competency-based education gained popularity in the 1970’s. This approach emphasized teachers’ ability to function effectively in the classroom. Before graduating, teachers-in-training had to show that they could teach, that they knew their subject areas thoroughly, and that they could maintain discipline.
By the early 2000’s, many politicians and educators began to call for more accountability for teacher-training programs. Some states began to require future teachers to pass certain tests in order to be accepted into a teacher-education program. It was thought that this type of testing would help identify the best individuals before they started teacher education. In addition, some states began to require future teachers to perform certain types of activities before they could leave teacher education. For example, Stanford University created a uniform and impartial process called edTPA assessment (formerly Teacher Performance Assessment) to evaluate aspiring teachers. edTPA, which came into effect in fall 2013, is the first standards-based assessment for teachers to become nationally available in the United States. Many states require universities and colleges to use edTPA to guide their teacher-education programs and to make sure future students are ready to become teachers.
Teaching around the world
Schools around the world teach children to read, write, and work with numbers. Students also usually learn their country’s customs and their duties as citizens. In many countries, children also study such subjects as geography, history, and science. Many countries expect teachers to instruct students in the use of computer technology in classrooms.
Brazil, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and many other countries expect teachers to teach a national curriculum. These countries usually require students to take standardized examinations to determine how well they have learned certain information and skills. National guidelines generally ask teachers to cover specific topics and values that are important to the country in which they are teaching. For example, the Czech Republic, which established a democratic government in 1993, has instituted national standards for the teaching of civics and government. Many countries, including Australia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, ask teachers to actively promote tolerance and acceptance of cultural differences.
In many developing countries, teachers work in settings without computers and other materials usually found in classrooms in developed countries. These teachers usually emphasize basic literacy skills and often teach adults as well as children. In many cases, teachers are expected to focus on health and disease prevention in addition to other studies.
Teaching in a multicultural society
In the last half century, schools in the United States have become more diverse, with students and families of different races, ethnic backgrounds, religions, family structures, and languages. Some schools and classrooms reflect a great amount of diversity and may include students who speak many different languages. Schools and districts must find new ways to teach, support, and respect students from various backgrounds, while also making sure that all students learn at high levels. Bilingual education, including English as a Second Language programs, can help teachers and students relate to each other and help teachers relate to families. Also, schools must show respect for school diversity in their curriculum, school calendar, and events, and in the hiring of teachers and other school workers.
