Tokyo is the capital of Japan and one of the largest cities in the world. It is part of a huge urban area that also includes the port city of Yokohama and the manufacturing cities of Chiba and Kawasaki. This area, known as the Tokyo metropolitan region, is the largest urban center in the world. It covers about 5,160 square miles (13,370 square kilometers) and has an estimated population of about 37 million people.
Tokyo is one of the busiest and most crowded cities in the world. It is the home of the Japanese emperor and the headquarters of Japan’s national government. Tokyo is a major center of business, culture, and education. It has tall buildings, freeways jammed with traffic, and more neon signs than probably any other city. Tokyo’s many banks, commercial establishments, and industries help make Japan one of the world’s richest nations.
Tokyo has a great variety of cultural offerings from throughout the world. Many of Tokyo’s people listen to American rock and pop music. They may eat at restaurants that offer everything from hamburgers to the finest European dishes. Many residents go to baseball games and watch movies and television shows from Europe and the Americas. Despite such outside influences, however, Japanese tradition remains strong. Large numbers of Tokyo’s people take part in dances and parades during the city’s traditional festivals, some of which have been held for hundreds of years. People go to city parks to enjoy the beauty of the cherry trees and lotus blossoms. They visit historic shrines and temples and attend traditional plays and wrestling matches.
Tokyo traces its origin to 1457, when a powerful warrior built a castle there. Tokyo became Japan’s capital in 1868. The city was almost destroyed twice—by a terrible earthquake that triggered massive fires in 1923, and by air raids in the 1940’s during World War II. But the city began growing rapidly after the war.
About 30 percent of the people of Japan live in the Tokyo area. Tokyo itself has become extremely crowded, and its housing costs are among the highest in the world. Tokyo also faces problems with pollution and some of the world’s heaviest traffic. At the same time, it is considered one of the world’s safest cities.
The city
Tokyo lies on the southeastern coast of Honshu, Japan’s largest island. The city stands in the southern part of a sprawling lowland called the Kanto Plain, a rich agricultural and industrial area. Mount Fuji, Japan’s highest and most famous peak, lies about 60 miles (97 kilometers) to the southwest. On clear days, people in Tokyo have a spectacular view of the beautiful mountain, which seems to “float” on the horizon.
The city, or ward area.
The city of Tokyo is divided into 23 units called wards, and it is often called the ward area. It is bordered by the Edo River on the northeast, by an inlet of the Pacific called Tokyo Bay on the east, and by the Tama River on the south. The Sumida River flows into Tokyo Bay in the eastern part of the city. 
The Imperial Palace, where the Japanese emperor lives, stands near the center of the city. The town that became Tokyo grew up in this area.
East from the palace to Tokyo Bay, the land is low and flat. Many of Tokyo’s chief business, commercial, and industrial districts are in this area. The Marunouchi district, an area of tall office buildings southeast of the palace, is Tokyo’s business and financial center.
Part of eastern Tokyo is jammed with office buildings and apartment buildings made of concrete and steel. The oldest and poorest residential sections of Tokyo are also in the eastern part of the city.
Much of far eastern Tokyo, including the human-made islands of the Odaiba commercial district, is built on filled-in land on what had been part of Tokyo Bay. Some of this land lies below sea level. Dikes built along the waterfront and the riverbanks guard against flooding. But the filled-in land sinks lower every year, mainly because of the removal of large amounts of ground water for industrial use. The dikes sink along with the land, making flood control difficult.
West of the Imperial Palace, the land becomes hilly. The western part of Tokyo has luxurious residential sections where wealthy people live.
Tokyo, unlike most other Japanese cities, no longer has large numbers of buildings in the ancient Japanese style most familiar to Europeans and Americans. This style features low, graceful lines and roofs turned up at the edges. Most of Tokyo’s buildings in this style are religious shrines or temples. Newer homes and apartment buildings are constructed to meet earthquake-resistance standards and other building codes.
The Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture
is one of 47 prefectures in Japan. Prefectures are the country’s main units of regional government. The Tokyo prefecture is called Tokyo-to in Japanese. Most prefectures are called ken. Tokyo is called a to in order to indicate its special status as the nation’s capital. 
The Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture is made up of four areas: (1) the city, or ward area, (2) about 26 suburban cities west of the ward area, (3) several towns in a mountainous area on the far western edge of the prefecture, and (4) the Izu Islands and the Bonin Islands, two small island groups in the Pacific Ocean, south of the prefecture. Nearly all of the prefecture’s residents live in the ward area or the suburban cities.
The Tokyo metropolitan region,
also called the Greater Tokyo Area, is the world’s largest urban region. It consists of most of the Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture and parts of three other prefectures—Kanagawa, Chiba, and Saitama. Kanagawa, to the south, includes the port city of Yokohama and the manufacturing city of Kawasaki. Chiba, on the east, has many large manufacturing cities and residential suburbs. Saitama, to the north, has many rapidly growing towns. The surrounding prefectures of Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, and Yamanashi, together with the Tokyo metropolitan region, are defined as the National Capital Region.
The people
More jobs and educational and cultural opportunities are available in Tokyo than anywhere else in Japan. As a result, the city constantly attracts people from other parts of the country. Tokyo is one of the most crowded cities in the world. It has an average of about 43,600 people per square mile (16,800 per square kilometer)—about one and a half times as many as New York City has.
Ethnic groups and religion.
Almost all the people of Tokyo are Japanese. Koreans and Chinese are the largest minority groups, but they make up less than 2 percent of the population. Shinto and Buddhism are the chief religions throughout Japan, and many people practice both. Tokyo has hundreds of historic Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. But most Tokyo residents visit these places of worship only for public festivals or for such special occasions as weddings and funerals. About 2 percent of the city’s residents are Christians. 
Housing.
Tokyo’s soaring population has created a strong demand for housing. In the past, most Tokyo residents lived in small, one- or two-story wooden houses, each with its own yard or garden. But as the population grew, many apartment buildings were constructed in an attempt to provide housing for larger numbers of people. Even so, a housing shortage continued. The limited amount of housing and land in the city center drove up rents and land prices. As a result, Tokyo’s outlying areas have experienced a building boom since the 1960’s.
The Tokyo prefecture has financed the construction of low-rent housing projects. One such project, called Tama New Town, was founded in 1965 and houses about 150,000 people. But Tama New Town, like many other Tokyo housing developments, was built far from the downtown area as part of a policy to relieve the pressures of urban growth. Some workers who live in outlying areas spend several hours a day traveling to and from their jobs in downtown Tokyo.
Food and clothing.
Many Tokyo residents enjoy traditional Japanese foods. Popular Japanese dishes include sukiyaki (beef cooked with vegetables), tempura (fish and vegetables fried in batter), and sushi (vinegar-flavored rice with raw fish or vegetables). Chinese and European foods are also popular in Tokyo, and the city has many American fast-food restaurants. 
On the streets and at work, most of Tokyo’s people wear clothing similar to that worn in Europe and the Americas. Some older women still wear a The kimono, a traditional Japanese garment of both men and women, is a long robe tied with a sash. Young people in Tokyo generally wear a kimono only on holidays or other special occasions. Most students in Tokyo wear uniforms to school.
Education.
The Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture has hundreds of elementary schools, junior high schools, and senior high schools. Most of these schools are in the ward area and the suburbs. Some parts of Tokyo do not have enough schools for the rapidly growing population. But in some old sections of the city center that are now largely occupied by businesses, schoolhouses stand nearly empty.
The prefecture has a large number of colleges and universities, including the University of Tokyo, a leading research institution. It was established in 1877 as the first national university in Japan.
Social problems,
such as poverty and crime, exist in Tokyo but are not as severe as they are in many other large cities. The traditional teaching of social values discourages criminal behavior. Because of Tokyo’s strong economy, most people can find jobs. The local and national governments also provide aid for those who cannot support themselves. Tokyo’s crime rate is much lower than the crime rate in most other large cities. Tokyo has no large minority groups, so it has few major problems stemming from racial or other social differences.
Demonstrations are often held in Tokyo to address such matters as political, educational, and environmental policies. Such demonstrations are usually peaceful.
Cultural life and recreation
Few cities in the world can match Tokyo as an international center of culture and entertainment. Tokyo’s cultural institutions and favorite leisure-time activities reflect the culture of both the East and the West.
The arts.
Many of Japan’s finest artists and craftworkers live and work in Tokyo. Some still use the styles and methods of their ancestors to create beautiful paintings on paper or silk and colorful wood-block prints. Other Tokyo artists create paintings and sculptures influenced by Western styles and methods.
Tokyo is the center of Japanese drama, music, and other performing arts. Two traditional types of Japanese drama, noh and kabuki, rank as favorite forms of entertainment in Tokyo. For descriptions of these colorful plays, see Drama (Japan).
Several professional symphony orchestras that specialize in Western music perform in Tokyo. Other Tokyo musical groups play traditional music featuring such Japanese instruments as the three-stringed samisen, or shamisen, and a kind of harp called a koto.
Japan’s motion-picture industry is also centered in Tokyo. Japanese movies have been praised by audiences throughout the world. In the late 1900’s and early 2000’s, Japanese manga (comic books) and animated films gained international popularity.
Museums and libraries.
Some of Japan’s finest museums and libraries are in Tokyo. The Tokyo National Museum has a valuable collection of Asian art. The National Art Center, Tokyo, presents traveling exhibitions. The National Museum of Modern Art specializes in works by modern Japanese artists. The National Museum of Western Art houses a large collection of works by Western artists. The National Museum of Nature and Science focuses on scientific discoveries. The Edo-Tokyo Museum tells the story of Tokyo’s history.
Tokyo’s public library system includes a central library and one branch. The National Diet Library is Japan’s largest library. The library’s first responsibility is to provide research and reference assistance to Japan’s Diet (parliament). It also serves many other needs, including those of scholars.
Recreation.
Exhibitions of judo and sumo, which are Japanese forms of wrestling, rank as favorite sporting events. Western sports, including baseball, bowling, golf, ice skating, soccer, tennis, and track and field, are also popular. Baseball is the most popular sport in Tokyo. The 55,000-seat Tokyo Dome hosts the home games of the Yomiuri Giants baseball team, along with many other sports events. A new National Stadium with regular seating for about 68,000 spectators was built for the 2020 Summer Olympic Games. It was completed in late 2019.
Tokyo also has many amusement parks and nightclubs. Karaoke bars, where guests sing to recorded music, are popular.
Visitor’s guide
Large numbers of tourists visit Tokyo the year around. In early April, the city’s famous cherry trees are in bloom. Autumn in Tokyo usually brings pleasantly mild weather. The city’s many festivals draw large numbers of tourists. Such festivals include the exciting parade of Tokyo’s firefighters on January 6 and the lively Sanja Festival, a Shinto celebration held in the Asakusa district in mid-May.
Tourists can choose from many fine hotels and restaurants in Tokyo. Many of the hotels are built and furnished in Western style. Others are Japanese-style hotels called ryokan. They have such traditional features as sliding paper-paneled doors called shoji, mats called tatami that cover the floors, and heavy quilts called futon that serve as beds. Tokyo has thousands of restaurants. Many of these restaurants specialize in Japanese or other Asian dishes, and many others serve Western foods.
This section of the article describes a few of the interesting places to visit in Tokyo. See other sections of the article for discussions of additional places of interest.
The Imperial Palace
is the home of Japan’s emperor. It stands near the center of the city and consists of several low buildings and beautiful parklike grounds. Sloping stone walls and a series of wide moats separate it from the rest of the city. The palace is open to the public only two days of the year—January 2 and the emperor’s birthday. Thousands of Japanese people come to pay their respects to the emperor on these two days. 
Government buildings.
The National Diet Building, a concrete and granite structure with a tall central tower, stands southwest of the Imperial Palace. It is the meeting place of Japan’s parliament. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government Office stands in the western part of the city, in an area called the Shinjuku district. This striking concrete building, designed by the Japanese architect Kenzo Tange, has twin 48-story towers. It houses the offices of the governor of the Tokyo prefecture and various government agencies. An observation deck at the top of the building is open to visitors. The Shinjuku district has many skyscrapers, including hotels, stores, and office buildings.
Tokyo Skytree,
a 2,080-foot (634-meter) radio and television broadcasting tower, is the tallest building in Japan and one of the tallest structures in the world. It was completed in 2012. In Japanese, the tower’s height in meters reads as “mu-sa-shi.” Musashi is the name of the historical province occupied by modern-day Tokyo.
Parks and gardens
attract many visitors. Ueno Park, northeast of the Imperial Palace, is one of the city’s most popular parks. Its spring displays of cherry blossoms and summer displays of lotus blossoms are outstanding. The park includes Tokyo’s largest concert hall, museums and art galleries, a zoo, a temple and shrine built during the 1600’s, and tombs of Japanese rulers. The grounds of the Imperial Palace have their own public garden as well.
Several Japanese-style gardens in Tokyo are open to the public. Korakuen Garden and Rikugien Garden—both north of the palace—are two of the oldest and most famous gardens. Many people visit Tokyo’s gardens to admire their beautifully landscaped grounds and to relax at their teahouses.
Shrines and temples
attract millions of worshipers and tourists yearly. The shrines are Shinto places of worship, and the temples are Buddhist.
Meiji Shrine, in a wooded parkland near the Shinjuku district, is one of the best-known shrines in Japan. Many Japanese visit it on New Year’s Day, one of the few times when most Japanese women wear traditional dress in public. The Yasukuni Shrine, dedicated to Japan’s war dead, stands northwest of the palace. It draws huge crowds for special festivals in April and October.
Tokyo’s famous Buddhist temples include the Kannon Temple in the Asakusa district at the city’s northeastern outskirts. The temple traces its origins to the 600’s, though the present buildings date from the 1950’s. Colorful souvenir shops line the approach to the temple. During the Sanja Festival, held in the temple area in mid-May, people parade in traditional Japanese costumes.
Other places of interest.
Several well-known districts are near the Imperial Palace. The Ginza district, southeast of the palace, ranks as one of Tokyo’s liveliest and most colorful districts. It is famous for its stores, restaurants, and nightclubs, as well as for the renowned Kabukiza Theater, which hosts kabuki plays. The Kanda district, northeast of the palace, is known for its many bookstores. The Akihabara district, north of Kanda, features hundreds of shops that sell electronics products. The Asakusa district, site of the Kannon Temple, is north of Akihabara. Asakusa is one of Tokyo’s oldest entertainment sections. It includes amusement parks, theaters, and restaurants. 
The Tokyo Central Wholesale Market, also known as Toyosu Market, is on Toyosu Island in the Bay of Tokyo. It is the largest fish market in Asia. A theme park called Tokyo Disney Resort, in Chiba Prefecture, is a top tourist attraction. The park was built on filled-in land in Tokyo Bay.
Economy
Tokyo is one of the world’s most important centers of economic activity. It has long been a center of Japanese manufacturing. Since the 1970’s, however, such service industries as finance, trade, and communication have become even more important. Many of Japan’s business corporations, including the Honda Motor Company, have their headquarters in Tokyo.
Manufacturing.
The manufacture of electronics equipment is one of Tokyo’s leading industries. Some of the world’s largest electronics firms—including Hitachi Limited and the Toshiba, Sony, and NEC corporations—have their headquarters in Tokyo. These huge companies and many small ones in the city make cameras, computers, radios, television sets, and other electronics products. Many of these products are exported. 
Publishing and printing are also leading industries in Tokyo. Most of Japan’s publishing companies have their headquarters in the city. Much of the material published in Tokyo is also printed there.
Other important products made in Tokyo include chemicals, food, furniture, and paper. Several Tokyo companies rank among the 25 largest manufacturing firms in the world.
Yokohama and Kawasaki also have many manufacturing plants. Products made in the metropolitan region include automobiles, chemicals, iron and steel, machinery, metal products, petroleum products, and ships.
Finance.
Tokyo is one of the world’s major financial centers. The Tokyo Stock Exchange ranks among the largest stock exchanges in the world. Businesses and industries throughout Japan depend on Tokyo banks for loans. The Bank of Japan, the nation’s central bank, has its headquarters in Tokyo. Controlled by the national government, the Bank of Japan regulates the nation’s entire banking system. 
Tokyo also has many commercial banks. The largest commercial banks have branches or offices in many Japanese and foreign cities. Tokyo is also the nation’s center for such consumer services as financial planning and credit management.
Trade.
Thousands of companies in Tokyo deal in international trade. These firms handle almost half of Japan’s export business and over half the nation’s import business. The 40-story Tokyo Trade Center displays various types of Japanese goods for international buyers. The Tokyo International Exhibition Center sponsors displays of international goods that attract millions of visitors from all over the world.
Because Tokyo has a relatively shallow harbor, most large ships that enter Tokyo Bay dock at Yokohama. The Port of Yokohama ranks as Japan’s largest port. Railroads, trucks, and barges carry large quantities of freight between the two cities. Chiba and Kawasaki also have port facilities.
Transportation.
Motorists in Tokyo drive more automobiles than the freeways and streets can handle effectively, and severe traffic jams are frequent. The prefecture government has sought to provide more public transportation as a substitute for automobile travel. The Tokyo Bay bridge and tunnel were built to help relieve traffic congestion.
Tokyo’s public transportation system is one of the most extensive in the world. It includes railroad, subway, and bus lines. A large network of rail lines crisscrosses the Tokyo metropolitan region. High-speed electric trains link Tokyo with Osaka and other cities. These passenger trains, called Shinkansen or “bullet trains,” may reach speeds of up to 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour.
Tokyo’s commuter trains rank among the fastest and most efficient in the world. Nearly 10 million passengers cram aboard them each day. During rush hours, employees called oshiya (pushers) work at the main train stations. Their job involves shoving passengers into crowded trains to make more room. The Shinjuku commuter station ranks as one of the busiest railway stations in the world. It handles millions of riders a day. 
Tokyo has two major airports. Tokyo International Airport, commonly called Haneda Airport, lies in the far southern part of the city. It handles mostly domestic traffic and flights to other Asian cities. A monorail (single-rail train) operates between central Tokyo and Haneda Airport. Most long international flights use the Narita International Airport, which lies about 40 miles (64 kilometers) east of central Tokyo.
Communication.
Tokyo’s many television and radio stations make the city a broadcasting center. Japanese programs, as well as American and European programs with Japanese sound tracks, appear on TV. Tokyo’s newspaper companies publish many daily papers.
Government
The governor is the chief official of the Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture. The people elect the governor to a four-year term. The chief lawmaking body is the Metropolitan Assembly. It has 127 members, whom the voters elect to four-year terms. Each ward, suburb, and other community in the prefecture has at least one representative in the Assembly. The prefecture government also includes a board of education, police and fire departments, and many other agencies.
The wards, suburbs, towns, and villages of the Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture all have some form of local government. Each elects a council and a mayor or other administrators. However, the prefecture government limits the powers of these local officials. It makes ordinances (rules) for all the communities in the prefecture. It also provides police protection and certain other public services for the entire area. It provides some services, including fire protection and sanitation facilities, for the ward area only.
Local governments provide services that are not supplied by the prefecture government. They may collect tax money for these projects, and they receive additional funds from the prefecture and national governments.
History
Early development.
The earliest settlement in the Tokyo area for which there is any physical evidence dates from A.D. 737. Archaeologists uncovered the remains of a Buddhist temple and monastery that had been built there at that time. However, Tokyo marks 1457 as its beginning. In that year, a warrior named Ota Dokan built a castle where the Imperial Palace now stands. Ota Dokan worked in the service of a powerful warrior family, one of several who ruled parts of Japan. A town named Edo (now called Tokyo) grew up around the castle. 
The development that turned the town into Japan’s chief city began in 1590. In that year, a warrior named Tokugawa Ieyasu made Edo his headquarters. In 1603, Ieyasu became shogun (military ruler) of Japan. Edo became the nation’s political center, even though Kyoto, a city southwest of Edo and the home of the emperor, remained the official capital. By the early 1800’s, Edo had grown into a city of over a million people. Ieyasu and his descendants ruled as shogun in Edo until 1867.
Western influence.
Beginning in the early 1600’s, Japan closed itself off from normal contact with the rest of the world. This policy was known as the sakoku (closed country) rule. The government allowed Chinese and Dutch ships to trade in Japan, but only occasionally and only at the port of Nagasaki. It prohibited Japanese people from traveling to other countries.
In 1853 and 1854, United States naval officer Commodore Matthew C. Perry negotiated with Japanese rulers to open diplomatic and trade relations with the United States. Partly as a result of Perry’s efforts, Japan signed trade treaties with the United States and other Western countries in 1858. The treaties marked the start of modern Western influence in Japan. 
Emperor Mutsuhito—who took the title Meiji, meaning enlightened rule—furthered Westernization. He took control of Japan from the shogun in 1867. He transferred the capital from Kyoto to Edo in 1868 and moved into the Edo castle. Edo was renamed Tokyo, which means eastern capital.
After 1868, Japan—especially Tokyo—rapidly adopted Western styles and inventions. Specialists from abroad introduced Western urban planning and construction methods. By the late 1800’s, parts of Tokyo began to look like Western cities.
Earthquake and reconstruction.
On Sept. 1, 1923, a violent earthquake shook the Tokyo area. Buildings collapsed, and fires broke out throughout Tokyo. About 120,000 residents of the city died in the disaster, and most of central Tokyo was destroyed. The city was rebuilt during the next 20 years. 
At the time of the earthquake, Tokyo consisted of 15 wards in the vicinity of the Imperial Palace. After the disaster, areas outside the 15 wards began to develop. In 1932, the city took over many of the areas and made them wards, establishing the present city limits.
World War II
brought destruction to Tokyo once again. American bombers first attacked the city in April 1942. The heaviest raids occurred in the months leading up to August 1945, when Japan announced its intention to surrender. The bombs destroyed about one-third of Tokyo. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed or listed as missing. Thousands fled the city. Tokyo’s population dropped from about 7,350,000 in 1940 to about 3,500,000 in 1945. In 1943, Tokyo and communities west of it formed the Tokyo Metropolitan Prefecture.
Rebuilding the city.
The people of Tokyo began to rebuild their city after the war, but without much planning. Buildings went up wherever there was room. Tokyo’s economy began booming a few years after the war. Population growth accompanied economic growth, and the population of the city nearly tripled between 1945 and 1960. In 1964, Tokyo hosted the Summer Olympic Games. In preparation for the games, the city started a construction program that included new freeways and hotels, and the monorail.
Tokyo’s rapid growth made it one of the world’s largest cities and gave it a strong economy. But the growth, along with a lack of planning, contributed to such problems as housing shortages, pollution, and traffic jams.
In 1966, the prefecture government started a series of plans to help solve Tokyo’s problems. The plans set goals for improving public housing, reducing pollution and traffic jams, and increasing sanitation facilities. Parts of the Tokyo prefecture were set aside for public housing and other community projects.
To ease overcrowding, the government encouraged the development of new suburban towns. A number of such towns grew rapidly. For example, Tsukuba, about 40 miles (60 kilometers) northeast of Tokyo, was designated in 1963 to become a center for scientific research and teaching. The city now has numerous research institutes and universities dedicated to technological studies.
Recent developments.
By the 1990’s, Tokyo’s air was significantly cleaner. The city had reduced water pollution by building better sewage and waste-disposal plants. Overcrowding and soaring land prices remained serious problems, however. In the early 1990’s, both the national and prefecture governments drafted new land and tax laws aimed at making housing more affordable.
In 1996, the Tokyo International Forum was completed in downtown Tokyo. It houses an exhibition hall; four halls for conventions, concerts, and theatrical performances; and many shops and restaurants. Its most distinctive feature is a giant elliptical glass hall. Other newer construction projects in Tokyo include the Oedo (also spelled O-Edo) subway line; the Roppongi Hills residential and retail development complex; Omotesando Hills shopping complex; and Tokyo Midtown, a mixed residential and commercial development. Tokyo Skytree, Japan’s tallest structure, was completed in 2012.
In 2006, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government introduced a 10-year plan to address environmental concerns. In 2011, the government introduced an additional 10-year plan to make Tokyo more disaster-resistant, restore the city’s waterfront, expand its infrastructure, and address other urban issues.
Beginning in early 2020, Tokyo faced the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic (worldwide epidemic). The city had been preparing to host the 2020 Summer Olympic Games. In March, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and the International Olympic Committee announced that the event would be postponed, to protect the health of the local and international communities. The Olympic Games were held in the summer of 2021. Because the disease still posed a threat, the organizers took many precautions, including restricting athletes from visiting non-Olympic sites and not allowing spectators to attend the events.
