Engineering is the profession that puts scientific knowledge to practical use. The word engineering comes from the Latin word ingeniare, which means to design or to create. Engineers use principles of science to design structures, machines, and products of all kinds. They look for better ways to use existing resources and often develop new materials. Engineers have had a direct role in the creation of most of modern technology—the tools, materials, techniques, and power sources that make our lives easier (see Technology).
The field of engineering includes a wide variety of activities. For example, engineering projects range from the construction of huge dams to the design and manufacture of tiny electronic circuits. Engineers help to produce robots for use in industry and to make artificial limbs for people with disabilities. They develop complex scientific equipment to explore the far reaches of outer space and the depths of the oceans. Engineers also plan our electric power and water supply systems and do research to improve automobiles, personal computers, and health care products. They work to reduce environmental pollution, improve the world’s food supply, and make transportation faster and safer.
In ancient times, there was no formal engineering education. The earliest engineers built structures and developed tools by trial and error. Today, special college training prepares engineers to work in a certain branch or field of engineering. Standards of quality and performance guide engineers on the job.
The branches of engineering
Most of the specialized fields of engineering developed since about 1750 or later. Before 1750, engineering dealt mostly with energy needs and the construction of buildings, roads, bridges, canals, or weapons. As people gained more knowledge of science and technology during the 1700’s and 1800’s, engineers began to specialize in certain kinds of work.
Today, new fields of engineering are continually emerging as a result of scientific and technological breakthroughs. At the same time, the boundaries between the various fields are becoming less and less clear-cut. Numerous areas of engineering overlap, and engineers from different specialties often work closely together on projects. Because the work of engineers affects many areas of society, engineers often work with business people, government officials, doctors, lawyers, and other professionals.
Aerospace engineering
involves the design, production, and maintenance of commercial and military aircraft. Engineers in the aerospace field also play an essential role in the development and assembly of guided missiles, drones (unmanned aerial vehicles), and all types of spacecraft. Aerospace engineers help build wind tunnels and other testing equipment with which they carry out experiments on proposed craft to determine their performance, stability, and control under flight conditions. Aerospace research ranges from efforts to design quieter and more fuel-efficient commercial aircraft to the search for materials that can withstand the high radiation levels and extreme temperatures of space flight.
To design strong, safe vehicles, aerospace engineers must know and put into practical use the principles of aerodynamics, the study of the forces acting on an object due to air moving past it (see Aerodynamics). They must also have a thorough understanding of the strength, elasticity, and other properties of the materials they use and be able to predict how they will behave during flight. Aerospace engineers work closely with electrical engineers in developing guidance, navigation, and control instruments and with mechanical engineers in designing suitable engines. They also assist civil engineers in planning airport facilities.
Biomedical engineering
applies engineering techniques to health-related problems. Biomedical engineers develop aids for people with physical disabilities. They design artificial limbs, organs, and other devices that assist or replace diseased or damaged parts of the body. They produce such equipment as instruments that measure blood pressure and pulse rate, and surgical lasers—concentrated beams of light that can be used to perform delicate operations. Biomedical engineers also develop machines and techniques for viewing internal organs and methods for delivering medicines to specific internal sites. Some specialize in programming computer systems to monitor a patient’s health or to process complex medical data, such as a person’s genetic code.
In choosing materials for artificial aids and organs, biomedical engineers must understand the physical and chemical properties of the materials and how they interact with each other and with the human body. In their work, biomedical engineers often use principles of biology, chemistry, and medicine and of electrical, materials, and mechanical engineering. See Biomedical engineering.
Chemical engineering
deals with the large-scale processing of chemicals and chemical products for industrial and consumer uses. Chemical engineers are concerned with the chemical processes that change raw materials into useful products. They plan, design, and help construct chemical plants and equipment and work to develop efficient and economical production methods. Many chemical engineers work for manufacturers of cosmetics, explosives, fertilizers, and other agricultural chemicals, food products, fuels, pharmaceuticals (medical drugs), or plastics.
Chemical engineers must know how to handle and transport large quantities of chemicals. They have to understand such problems as heat transfer from one substance to another, absorption of liquids and gases, and evaporation. Chemical engineers control such processes as distillation, crystallization, filtration, mixing, drying, and crushing.
The work of chemical engineers relies heavily on principles of chemistry, physics, and mathematics, and frequently those of biology as well. Chemical engineers consult with electrical, mechanical, and industrial engineers in the design of plants and equipment. Some chemical engineers work closely with environmental engineers in seeking safe disposal methods for hazardous by-products of chemical processing.
Civil engineering,
the oldest of the main branches of engineering, involves the planning and supervision of such large construction projects as bridges, canals, dams, tunnels, and water supply systems. Civil engineers also cooperate with architects to design and erect all types of buildings. Other civil-engineering projects include airports, highways, levees, irrigation and sewerage systems, pipelines, and railroads.
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Civil engineers work to build strong, safe structures that meet building codes and other regulations and are well suited to their surroundings. The engineers are responsible for surveying and preparing building sites and for selecting appropriate materials. Civil engineers must also understand the use of bulldozers, cranes, power shovels, and other construction equipment.
Some civil engineers specialize in the study of the physical characteristics of soils and rocks and the design of foundations. Others concentrate on the management of water resources and its environmental impact, including the construction of flood control and irrigation systems, hydroelectric power plants, and water supply and sewerage systems. Still others are concerned with designing transportation systems and methods of traffic control. Many civil engineers are involved in city planning and urban renewal programs (see City planning; Urban renewal).
Computer engineering
deals with the design of products for electronic computation and communication. Computer engineers focus on the creation, processing, and distribution of electronic information.
Computer engineers work in virtually all industries. They build computers for home and industrial use. They also make tiny computers that are used in products that range from cellular telephones to coffeemakers. Some computer engineers write and upgrade (revise and improve) software—coded instructions that tell computers how to accomplish specific tasks. Others develop networks that connect individual computers to one another worldwide and within local regions. Still another task of computer engineers is applying computer tools to specific tasks that range from patient management in hospitals to the development of mathematical models that can predict weather patterns.
Computer engineers rely on mathematics, physics, and electrical engineering. They may be called to work with experts in virtually any other field.
Electrical engineering
involves the development, production, and testing of electrical and electronic devices and equipment. Electrical engineers design equipment to produce and distribute electric power. This equipment includes generators run by water power, coal, oil, and nuclear fuels; solar energy systems; transmission lines; and transformers. Electrical engineers also design and develop electric motors and other electrical machinery as well as ignition systems used in automobiles, aircraft, and other engines. They work to improve such devices as air conditioners, food processors, and vacuum cleaners.
Electrical engineers play an essential role in the production of communications satellites, computers, industrial robots, medical and scientific instruments, missile control systems, and radar, radio, and television sets. Some engineers in the electronics field develop master plans for the parts and connections of miniature integrated circuits, which control the electric signals in most electronic devices. Many electronics engineers design, build, and program complex computer systems to perform particular tasks. Telecommunication, which involves the transmission of messages over long distances, is another major specialty of electrical engineering.
Environmental engineering
concerns efforts to prevent and control air, water, soil, and noise pollution. Environmental engineers develop equipment to measure pollution levels, and they conduct experiments to determine the effects of various pollutants. They design air pollution control devices and operate water purification systems and water treatment plants. Environmental engineers also develop techniques to protect the land from erosion and from pollution by chemical fertilizers and pesticides. They use computers to create mathematical models that help predict the results of the adoption of such techniques.
Environmental engineers are specialists in the disposal of hazardous wastes from factories, mining operations, nuclear power plants, and other sources (see Hazardous wastes). They work to clean up unsafe dump sites created in the past and do research on new storage and recycling techniques. Environmental engineers are also involved in the development of cleaner and more reliable forms of energy and in developing ways to make the best present and future use of natural resources. Environmental engineers work with agricultural and mining engineers to develop production techniques that do the least possible damage to the land. They assist civil engineers in the design of water supply, waste disposal, and ventilation systems, and they help chemical and nuclear engineers in waste disposal.
Industrial engineering
applies engineering analysis and techniques to the production of goods and services. Industrial engineers determine the most economical and effective ways for an organization to use people, machines, and materials. An industrial engineer may select the location for a plant or office, determine employee requirements, select equipment and machinery, design safe and comfortable work areas, and plan steps in operations. Industrial engineers also develop training and job evaluation programs and work-performance standards, and help determine wages and employee benefits. They work to solve such problems as high costs, low productivity, and poor product quality.
Mathematical models developed on computers enable industrial engineers to simulate the flow of work through an organization and to evaluate the effects of proposed changes. Industrial engineers also use data-processing systems to aid in financial planning, inventory control, and scheduling. Their work often requires a knowledge of mathematics, economics, psychology, physiology, and personnel management. Industrial engineers work in a wide variety of businesses and industries, including banks, construction and transportation firms, government agencies, hospitals, and public utilities.
Materials engineering
deals with the structure, properties, production, and uses of various materials. Materials engineers work with both metallic and nonmetallic substances. They improve existing materials and develop new uses and production methods for them. They also develop new materials to meet specific needs, such as requirements for electronics and biomedical equipment. The major subdivisions of engineered materials are metals, ceramics, and polymers (plastics). Another important category is composites, which combine at least two different materials to achieve specific properties. See Ceramics; Composite materials; Metallurgy; Plastics.
Materials engineers are involved in nearly all industries. They help develop and determine the best materials to use for various products. Materials engineers have developed lightweight, high-strength materials for use in aircraft parts; materials to withstand high temperatures for the nuclear power industry; materials for use inside the human body; and materials designed to break down into simple compounds with minimal impact on the environment.
Materials engineers frequently work with chemical, industrial, and mechanical engineers. They may also work with aerospace, biomedical, electrical, or environmental engineers. They rely on principles of physics, chemistry, mathematics, and often those of biology.
Mechanical engineering
deals with the physical behavior of solids and fluids and with systems of solids and fluids. Mechanical engineers are involved in the development of mechanical, biomechanical, and electromechanical processes; the production, transmission, and use of mechanical power; the flow of fluids and heat in systems; and the control of mechanical operations. Applications of mechanical engineering include machinery design and development and the creation of products with moving parts, which range from children’s toys to automobiles to power plants.
Mechanical engineers work in many industries, including public utilities, energy production, transportation, and manufacturing. They help design products used to study the human body or to replace parts of the body. For example, mechanical engineers have developed mathematical models of human motion that have been applied to both mobile robots and biomedical devices. They have also played a key role in the development of miniature electromechanical devices, such as portable audiotape and compact disc players.
Mechanical engineers rely on the principles of physics and mathematics. Those involved in certain tasks might also rely on knowledge of biology, chemistry, electrical engineering, and materials engineering.
Nuclear engineering
is concerned with the production and applications of nuclear energy and the uses of radiation and radioactive materials. Most nuclear engineers design, construct, and operate nuclear power plants that generate electric power. They handle every stage in the production of nuclear energy, from the processing of nuclear fuels to the disposal of radioactive wastes from nuclear reactors. They also work to improve and enforce safety standards and to develop new types of nuclear energy systems.
Nuclear engineers also design and build nuclear engines for ships, submarines, and space vehicles. They develop industrial, medical, and scientific uses for radiation and radioactive materials. Some nuclear engineers specialize in designing and constructing particle accelerators, devices that are used in scientific studies of the atom and in creating new elements (see Particle accelerator). Others specialize in the development of nuclear weapons. Nuclear engineers also play a role in the development of radiation sources, detectors, and shielding equipment. The work of nuclear engineers frequently overlaps with that of electrical, environmental, mechanical, and materials engineers.
Other specialized fields
focus on even more specific areas of engineering than do the major branches. This section describes a few important specialties.
Acoustical engineering
deals with sound. The work of acoustical engineers includes designing buildings and rooms to make them quiet; improving conditions for listening to speech and music in auditoriums and halls; and developing techniques and sound-absorbing materials to reduce noise pollution.
Agricultural engineering
involves the design of farm buildings and agricultural equipment, and erosion control, irrigation, and land conservation projects. Agricultural engineers are also concerned with the processing, transporting, and storing of agricultural products.
Mining engineering
involves locating and appraising deposits of minerals and ores. Mining engineers decide how they can mine these materials as cheaply, efficiently, and safely as possible with minimal damage to the environment.
Ocean engineering
involves the design and installation of all types of equipment used in the ocean. The products of ocean engineers include oil rigs and other offshore installations, marine research equipment, and breakwater systems used to prevent beach erosion.
Petroleum engineering
deals with producing, storing, and transporting petroleum and natural gas. Petroleum engineers locate oil and gas deposits and try to develop more efficient drilling and recovery methods.
Sustainability engineering
involves developing solutions to engineering problems that will not compromise the quality of life for future generations. Sustainability engineers work to use resources and energy responsibly.
Textile engineering
is concerned with the machinery and processes used to produce both natural and synthetic fibers and fabrics. Engineers in this field also work to develop new and improved textiles.
Transportation engineering
involves efforts to make transportation safer, more economical, and more efficient. Engineers in this field design all types of transportation systems and develop related facilities for reducing traffic problems.
History
The history of engineering is the record of human ingenuity through the ages. Even in prehistoric times, people developed basic engineering techniques to make use of natural objects. For example, sturdy sticks became levers to lift large rocks, and logs were used as rollers to move heavy loads. The development of agriculture and the growth of civilization brought about a new wave of engineering efforts. People invented farming tools, designed elaborate irrigation networks, and built the first cities. The construction of the gigantic Egyptian pyramids at Giza during the 2500’s B.C. was one of the greatest engineering feats of ancient times (see Pyramids). In ancient Rome, engineers built large aqueducts and bridges and vast systems of roads. During the 200’s B.C., the Chinese began building walls to link older walls to protect China’s northern border. These links marked the start of construction of the Great Wall of China (see Great Wall of China).
Early engineers used such simple machines as the inclined plane, wedge, and wheel and axle. During the Middle Ages, a period in European history that lasted from about the A.D. 400’s through the 1400’s, inventors developed machines to harness water, wind, and animal power. The growing interest in new types of machines and new sources of power to drive them helped bring about the Industrial Revolution, a period of rapid industrial development in the 1700’s and 1800’s (see Industrial Revolution). The role of engineers expanded rapidly during the Industrial Revolution. The practical steam engine developed by the Scottish engineer James Watt in the 1760’s revolutionized transportation and industry by providing a cheap, efficient source of power. New ironmaking techniques provided engineers with the material to improve machines and tools and to build bridges and ships. Many roads, railroads, and canals were constructed to link the growing industrial cities.
Distinct branches of engineering began to develop during the Industrial Revolution. The term civil engineer was first used about 1750 by John Smeaton, a British engineer. Mechanical engineers emerged as specialists in industrial machinery, and mining and metallurgical engineers were needed to supply metals and fuels. By the late 1800’s, the development of electric power and advances in chemical processing had created the fields of electrical and chemical engineering. Professional schools were founded as the demand for engineers steadily increased.
During the 1900’s, the number of engineers and of engineering specialties expanded dramatically. Airplanes, computers, lasers, nuclear energy, plastics, space travel, and television were among the scientific and technological breakthroughs that engineers helped achieve.
Science and technology have progressed and changed so rapidly that engineers today must learn throughout their careers to ensure that their knowledge and expertise remain current. They face the challenging task of keeping pace with the latest advances while working to shape the technology of the future.
Engineering careers
The field of engineering offers a broad range of job opportunities. Engineers may work in factories, offices, and government laboratories or at construction sites. Some engineers are involved in the research and development of new products. Others are responsible for turning plans and specifications for new structures, machines, or systems into reality. Still others use their background and training to sell and service technical equipment. Many engineers work on projects in teams that include scientists, technicians, and other engineers. But some engineers act as independent consultants who sell their services to people who need engineering assistance. Engineers may also hold teaching positions or move up into management positions in business.
Certain abilities and traits help qualify a person for an engineering career. Engineers must have technical aptitude and skill in mathematics and the sciences. They should be curious about the “how” and “why” of natural things and creative in finding new ways of doing things. Engineers need to be able to analyze problems systematically and logically and to communicate well—both orally and in writing. They should be willing to work within strict budgets and meet tight deadlines. In addition, skill in working as part of a team and in directing and supervising other workers is an important part of many engineering jobs.
Education and training.
For students considering a career in engineering, the most important subjects to take in high school are mathematics, and science. Typically, the mathematics courses should cover algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and introductory calculus. Chemistry and physics are important sciences for students to take. Helpful electives include biology; foreign languages; economics, history, and other social studies courses; and composition and public speaking.
To enter the engineering profession, most students complete a four-year bachelor’s degree program at a college or university. In addition to a course of study in their chosen engineering fields, engineering students must take several advanced mathematics and science courses. Most undergraduate degree programs also include courses in such subjects as economics, history, languages, management, and writing to equip students with the skills that will be needed in their later work as engineers. Many programs require the completion of an independent study or design project, including a formal report, before graduation.
Undergraduate engineering students often take part in internships or cooperative education programs in which they alternate between going to school and working for companies as special engineering trainees. These programs give students the benefit of practical experience while studying for their degrees.
Graduate study gives the engineering student additional preparation for a professional career. Many engineering students study for an additional year or two after receiving a bachelor’s degree. They undertake a program of advanced course work in a specialized field and earn a master’s degree. The completion of an original research project called a thesis is part of most master’s programs. Engineering students who want to teach at a college or university or do advanced research may then study three to five more years to earn a doctoral degree.
Some universities, junior and community colleges, and technical institutes offer two-year and four-year degree programs in certain specialized areas of engineering technology, such as computer maintenance and electronics. Engineering technology programs prepare students for basic design and production work in engineering rather than for jobs that require extensive knowledge of science or mathematical theory. Engineering technicians, graduates of the two-year programs, and engineering technologists, graduates of the four-year programs, form an important part of professional engineering teams.
Engineers continue their education after they complete their formal studies and obtain a job. Engineers, as well as engineering technicians and technologists, must continually update their knowledge by taking courses, attending workshops offered by professional societies, and reading technical journals.
Registration and licensing.
Laws affecting the registration and licensing of engineers vary from country to country. In many countries, engineers must be registered if they offer their services to the public or if they are involved in construction. In the United States, each state has a board of engineering examiners that administers the licensing laws.
Professional organizations and standards.
Many specialized fields of engineering have their own professional societies. The societies publish technical articles and help members keep up to date. They also grant awards to outstanding engineers, work to promote public understanding of engineering, and encourage young people to become engineers. Many engineering societies prepare standards for procedures and sponsor research of general interest.
Engineering organizations in the United States include ABET, Inc. (formerly called the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology). ABET is composed of several societies. It reviews and accredits courses of study in engineering and engineering technology. It also provides guidance material for high school and college students. More information is available on the ABET website at https://www.abet.org.
Many professional engineers observe codes of ethics adopted by engineering societies. The codes tell how engineers should conduct themselves in dealing with the public, with clients and employers, and with other engineers.
