Hinduism is the major religion of India. It has about 1 billion followers. Although most Hindus live in India, Hindu literature and philosophy have influenced people throughout the world.
Hinduism represents a diverse group of beliefs, practices, and texts that have developed over thousands of years. Many Hindus claim that their religion has been practiced for longer than any other religion in the world. No single authority exists in Hinduism, and the diversity within this religion has led some scholars to prefer the plural term Hinduisms.
Beliefs of Hinduism
Like most religions, Hinduism has a variety of beliefs about deities (gods and goddesses), life after death, and personal conduct. Many groups have arisen within Hinduism and developed varying texts, philosophies, and forms of practice.
Sacred writings.
Hinduism has no single book that is the source of its doctrines, but it has many sacred writings that have contributed to its beliefs and practices. The most important writings include the Vedas, the Puranas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata.
The Vedas
are the oldest Hindu scriptures and include sections that are older than the sacred writings of any other major religion. The teachings of the Vedas existed for centuries before they were finally written down. There are four Vedas—the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each has four parts—the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads. The Samhitas, the oldest part, contain prayers and hymns that are recited in some rituals. The Brahmanas deal with ritual and theology and include explanations of the Samhitas. The Aranyakas and the Upanishads develop philosophical ideas.
The Puranas
are long verse stories that contain many important narratives about deities and the lives of great Hindu heroes. They also describe Hindu beliefs about how the world began and how it periodically ends and is reborn.
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata
are long epics. The Ramayana tells of Prince Rama and his attempts to rescue his wife, Sita, who has been kidnapped by the demon king Ravana. The Mahabharata describes a struggle for a disputed kingdom between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, two families who are cousins. Generally, the Pandavas are considered the rightful rulers and superior to the Kauravas.
The Bhagavad-Gita forms a particularly popular part of the Mahabharata. In the Bhagavad-Gita, the god Krishna and the Pandava warrior Arjuna discuss the meaning and nature of existence. Krishna impresses on Arjuna his need to fulfill his duty as a ruler and defeat those who want to steal the throne of the Pandavas. Krishna also teaches that death is not the end of a person, because the physical body is not the final reality.
Deities.
Early Hindus worshiped gods that represented powers in nature, such as rain and the sun. Some Hindus came to believe that, though deities appear in many separate forms, these forms are part of one universal spirit called Brahman. Individual Hindus often focus on just a few of the many deities as their ishta devata—that is, their personal deities.
Three important groups of deities center around Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti. Vishnu is the preserver of the universe who takes various human forms called avatars. Shiva is the destroyer of the universe. Such destruction allows for the universe’s renewal. Shakti refers to a goddess who is known by many names, including Durga, Kali, Parvati, and Lakshmi. As Durga or Kali, she is the feared but just goddess of destruction. As Parvati and Lakshmi, she is the beloved of the gods Shiva and Vishnu, respectively.
According to common Hindu doctrine, animals as well as human beings have souls. Some Hindus worship gods in the form of animals, including monkeys and snakes. Cows are especially revered because of the gifts, such as milk, that they provide for people.
The six schools of philosophy.
Many schools of Hindu thought have developed through the centuries. Six of these schools have become especially prominent. In their traditional order, they are (1) nyaya, (2) vaisheska, (3) sankhya, (4) yoga, (5) purva-mimamsa, and (6) vedanta.
Nyaya deals with logic. Vaisheska concerns the nature of the world. Sankhya examines the origin and evolution of the universe. Yoga is a set of mental and physical exercises designed to free the soul from reliance on the body so that the soul can unite with Brahman. Purva-mimamsa categorizes the texts and rituals of the Vedas. Vedanta chiefly interprets the Upanishads, though some forms also deal with such texts as the Bhagavad-Gita.
Caste
is a system of social classes that reflects a general division of labor. Complicated rules traditionally govern contact between castes. For example, marriages between people of different castes are rare, and the upper castes are not supposed to eat with lower ones.
According to several Hindu texts, the Hindu castes are grouped into four main categories, called varnas. In order of rank, these hereditary groups are (1) Brahmans, the priests and scholars; (2) Kshatriyas, the rulers and warriors; (3) Vaisyas, the merchants and professionals; and (4) Shudras, the laborers and servants. In practice, the caste system includes thousands of jatis (subcastes). Each jati has its own rules of conduct that usually include a traditional occupation. The ranks of jatis in relation to one another sometimes are disputed.
A group of jatis, known collectively as untouchables or outcastes, has traditionally existed outside the four varnas and ranked below the lowest Shudra caste. By custom, the untouchables have held such occupations as cleaning toilets, disposing of garbage, and tanning animal hides, which Hindu law forbids for a member of any of the four varnas. The Indian Constitution of 1950 outlawed untouchability and gave the group full citizenship. Discrimination against untouchables still exists. But a portion of government jobs and university admissions now are reserved for untouchables, helping some of them succeed outside their traditional occupations.
For centuries, various Hindu and non-Hindu groups have criticized the prejudices and the practices of discrimination in the caste system. The system has weakened, particularly in urban areas. Occupation seldom is tied to caste, and eating with people of other castes is common. Caste distinctions remain strongest in the choice of marriage partners.
Reincarnation and karma.
Hinduism teaches that the soul never dies. When the body dies, the soul is reborn. This continuous process of rebirth is called reincarnation. The law of karma states that every action influences how the soul will be born in the next reincarnation. If a person lives a good life, the soul will be born into a higher state, perhaps into the body of a Brahman. If a person leads an evil life, the soul will be born into a lower state, perhaps as a worm. A person’s reincarnation continues until he or she achieves spiritual perfection. The soul then escapes the process of rebirth and enters a new level of existence called moksha.
Hindu worship
Worship in the home.
Typically, Hindus worship as individuals or families, not as large communities. Many observances of Hinduism take place at home. Most homes have a shrine devoted to a deity or deities chosen by the family. The husband or wife usually conducts the daily family worship. Some important ceremonies are performed at home, including rituals of thanksgiving and rituals connected with such life events as pregnancy and childbirth. Sometimes a family member conducts these rituals, and sometimes a priest visits the home to perform them.
Worship in temples.
Individuals and families also visit temples to worship deities. Most Hindu temples have many shrines. Each temple recognizes one deity as central. Each shrine portrays a form of the central deity, or sometimes a different deity, in a sculpted image. Priests perform rituals in which they invite the divine being, who is everywhere, to reside in the images. Hindus treat these images as special guests. Priests wash and dress the images and bring them food daily. Hindus do not consider this idol worship, because the deities are believed to actually inhabit the images.
Hindu temples attract crowds for annual festivals commemorating events in the lives of the deities. Pilgrimages have developed around certain temples and festivals in India. Other festivals, including Diwali and Holi, take place primarily in the home or neighborhood. Different regions have different calendars and festivals.
Veneration of holy people.
Hindus venerate (have deep respect for) holy people, both living and dead, who have achieved special spiritual status. Some may be gurus (spiritual teachers) who have developed deep spiritual understanding. Others may be yogis (people who practice yoga) who have gained spiritual power through asceticism (strict self-discipline). Hindus who venerate gurus or yogis sometimes disagree about who is a true guru or yogi.
