Careers

Careers are the work-related activities that people develop throughout a lifetime. Careers vary greatly in the type of work involved and in the ways they influence a person’s life. An individual’s career may involve several occupations. Occupations are the jobs people do. Careers also may change over a person’s lifetime in a process called career development. This is because people seldom stay with one job, one company, or one occupation throughout their working life.

Most people pursue a career to help them satisfy certain goals in life. Such goals might include earning a living, helping society, or preserving the world we live in. People typically develop careers around earning pay to support themselves and their family. However, some people build a career around activities for which they receive no money. For example, some people’s careers are caring for their family and their home. Other people volunteer their time to help others.

The kind of career you have can affect your life in many ways. For example, it can determine where you live, the friends you make, and the amount of money you earn. It can affect your role in life as a member of a family, such as a spouse or parent. Your career can also affect how you feel about yourself and the way other people act toward you. You can balance your life by selecting leisure activities that complement your occupation. Your career decisions can help you build the life you want.

Important career decisions include choosing a career field and planning how you will pursue your career. Other decisions involve selecting the educational and job opportunities that will affect your career. Knowing your abilities, interests, values, and goals gives you a foundation on which to base your career decisions. Also, deepening your knowledge of the world of work can help you consider career possibilities that you did not know existed.

The decisions you make about your career affect not only yourself, but your country and the world you live in. As a worker, you become part of a workforce. Researchers have shown that in order for a nation’s economy to grow, its workforce must be able to read, write, communicate, and use technology well. For a society to remain prosperous, its workers also must be willing to learn new things and to adapt as new products, services, and technologies develop.

Choosing and planning a career

To make wise career decisions and plans, you need as much information as possible. The more you know about yourself and career opportunities, the better able you will be to choose and prepare for a satisfying career.

Learning about oneself.

From a young age, students begin to explore who they are as a worker. Preschool children learn from their family that there is work to be done at home and that all family members are workers. They begin to form attitudes about work, such as that work is a way to contribute to society and that a good education leads to success at work.

Children in elementary school through middle school learn that it is good to work in the classroom. They see that school subjects relate to a variety of occupations. They learn about many careers and may become especially interested in several of them.

Junior high or middle school students learn more about themselves through school activities and volunteer work. They begin to consider various types of education, including technical schools or college preparatory programs.

At the high school level, students should think about their life and career goals. To do this, they should determine their (1) aptitudes, (2) interests, (3) personal characteristics or personality, and (4) values. Most workers are happiest and most successful when their jobs match their strengths, personality, and beliefs.

Aptitudes

are a person’s natural talents. Aptitudes may suggest how easily a person can acquire certain skills or be trained for a specific career. An aptitude is sometimes known as an ability. However, the term ability can also refer to a skill that a person has learned, such as reading or speaking a foreign language.

One of the most important aptitudes is scholastic aptitude. People who have a high scholastic aptitude tend to succeed more easily in school than those who do not. Scholastic aptitude plays a major role in determining a person’s career choice.

Other special aptitudes are related to success in various jobs as well. For example, people with numerical reasoning aptitude can easily become skilled in using numbers to solve mathematical problems. Mechanical reasoning aptitude can help you understand mechanical concepts that relate to repairing and assembling machines. Aptitude tests can predict your ability to learn certain skills. School subjects may also indicate aptitude, as may how well you do in such recreational activities as playing computer games or building model cars.

People may not realize they have certain aptitudes unless they get an opportunity to develop them. Even people who have relatively low aptitude in a certain area can later develop the skills needed to perform successfully in that area. Before you make a career choice, you should determine if performing that job requires any special aptitudes. To succeed in engineering, for example, you should have aptitudes for numerical reasoning; verbal reasoning, which involves thinking and reasoning with words; and spatial relations, which can help you imagine objects in two or three dimensions.

Interests

are likes or feelings of curiosity. The subjects that you like in school and the activities you choose to do are some indications of your interests. People have interests in artistic, mechanical, outdoor, or scientific activities. Other interests include collecting various objects, such as rocks or stamps. Many people base their career choices on their interests. Job performance and satisfaction may depend on how much their work relates to their interests. It is therefore helpful to identify your strongest interests before you select a career field. Be sure to try a variety of activities to see if they become your strongest interests.

Personal characteristics, or personality,

can contribute to success in a career. Employers look for workers with such characteristics as leadership, initiative, reliability, and trustworthiness. In addition to what employers want, your personality can help you decide what kind of job you want. If you are independent, for example, you might be happiest in a job where you work alone, rather than as a member of a team. These kinds of characteristics are often identified by looking at your behavior, answering a questionnaire called a personality test, or talking with someone with knowledge about careers and personality.

Values

are deeply held beliefs that influence the way people think, act, and feel. They reflect what people consider to be important and greatly affect the goals people set for themselves. Each person has many values, which vary in strength. For example, some people place the highest value on money. As a result, they focus their thoughts, behavior, and emotions on the goal of earning a high income. They may select a career that typically pays a high salary, such as a pharmacist or engineer. Other values include devotion to religion and helping others. People should understand their values before making a career decision so that their work life does not conflict with their values.

Discovering the world of work.

Even before children enter school, they become aware that people work in various occupations. Most school children start to form ideas about life and about themselves as individuals.

A realistic view of themselves and the world of work can help children prepare to make successful career choices. Adults can help children discover the world of work in many ways. For example, parents and teachers can encourage children to notice and talk about different jobs in the community. They might read and discuss stories about different kinds of workers.

Parents can talk about their work and the various jobs that relatives have performed. Students may watch workers perform their duties during field trips. Teachers may also invite workers into the classroom to discuss their jobs.

What to look for in career fields.

For most workers, job satisfaction depends on how well the job connects with their interests, values, aptitudes, and personality. In exploring an occupation, you should therefore learn about the following job characteristics.

The nature of the work.

Some jobs chiefly involve working with things, and others mainly require dealing with people or information. You should look for an occupation that involves activities you enjoy and can do well. Remember, though, that most jobs combine a variety of work activities and may change over time.

Working conditions

describe the environment in which a particular job is performed. A work environment might be indoors or outdoors. Some jobs involve high levels of dust or noise, physical hazards, or mental stress. Other conditions to consider include the number of hours employees work each week and whether employees work alone or in groups.

Some occupations are physically demanding. A job that involves carrying or lifting objects requires strength. Other occupations require workers to perform repetitive tasks or to stand for long periods. When you consider a job, be sure that you can meet any physical demands the work might make on you.

Preparation needed.

The amount of preparation required to enter an occupation varies. It can range from a few hours of training to more than eight years of education beyond high school. In addition, workers in many occupations must learn more each year in order to keep their jobs or to advance in them. Some occupations require several years of experience and preparation at lower-level jobs. For example, before you can be a retail sales supervisor, you may need to be a cashier. You should consider the amount of time and money you are able to spend in preparing for a career.

Chances for employment.

Before you choose a career field, you should also consider the job outlook—that is, your chances of getting a job in that field. In businesses and industries with steady or decreasing employment, workers are hired only to replace employees who have left their jobs. In growing businesses and industries, however, additional workers are needed. Employment opportunities are also affected by the introduction of new products and advanced technologies. Government spending and economic conditions affect job opportunities as well.

Probable earnings.

In exploring an occupation, you will want to know how much money you can expect to earn. Government, professional, and trade publications supply information on probable earnings for various occupations. For example, the Occupational Employment Statistics survey, conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, provides the median wage for a particular occupation. The median wage is the wage at which half of the workers in the occupation earn more than that amount, and half earn less.

Salary or pay scales vary with location, employers, and levels of experience and education. Many employers provide insurance coverage, paid vacations, and other such fringe benefits, which you should consider in addition to probable earnings. Look for careers that match your values for income level and lifestyle.

Chances for advancement.

In some occupations, workers are promoted or advanced to higher positions based on years of experience or their ability to do a good job. However, some employers hire people from outside the company to fill high-level openings. If employers consistently do this, workers can advance only by changing jobs. If it is important to you to have opportunities to move into new positions in your career, be sure to find out, before selecting a career, what you will have to do to be eligible for advancement.

Sources of information.

A number of sources supply information that can help you explore career fields. Libraries have extensive collections of books and provide access to databases that describe careers. Government agencies, industries, professional organizations, and many employers maintain websites and publish materials that provide details about various occupations.

Many schools offer career courses and clubs to help students learn about job opportunities. Teachers often supplement class discussions with interactive career guidance software available on computers.

Career information is also available from career and guidance counselors. These professionals work in high schools, community agencies, employment offices, and college career development and planning centers. Counselors can help you identify your immediate and future career goals. They can also administer tests that help you learn about yourself and identify the qualities you have to offer an employer. Counselors can then assist you in determining several occupational choices. They can also advise you on how to prepare for and obtain a job in your chosen field.

You can also learn about individual jobs by interviewing workers in those positions. In addition, you can gain firsthand information about an occupation through part-time jobs and volunteer work. For example, a person considering a career in medicine might volunteer at a hospital. _Job shadowing—_that is, observing a worker performing his or her job for a day—can also give you firsthand career information.

Preparing for a career.

Career preparation involves learning a variety of skills. Some skills, such as meeting deadlines and knowing how to get along with others, are learned through everyday experiences in and out of school. These are often called soft skills. Other skills require specialized training.

School courses and experiences are the most important career preparations in terms of skill development. In school, students develop basic verbal and numerical skills, study habits, and other practical abilities. These skills provide the foundation for future learning.

Some people begin specialized career preparation in high school. Business and vocational courses prepare high school students to enter an occupation immediately after graduation. Most high schools also offer college preparatory courses for students who plan to go to college. Many schools offer cooperative education, school-to-work, or distributive education programs that help students enter the work force. Under these programs, students continue their classroom education while they are employed through an internship or a part-time job.

Certain occupations require only a high school education. Others call for additional training. This section briefly describes the major kinds of career preparation programs.

On-the-job training

means that a worker is taught job skills after being hired. In most cases, an experienced worker trains and supervises the beginner. The training may last a few hours or many months.

Apprenticeships

are structured programs of training that combine classroom instruction and on-the-job training. They provide two or more years of job experience and instruction. Every apprenticeship is based on a written agreement between the employer and the apprentice. Most apprenticeships train workers for skilled occupations in construction and manufacturing.

Vocational schools,

also called trade schools, offer courses in areas leading to specific jobs, such as automobile repair, hairstyling, or restaurant cooking. Courses range from several months to two years. Most vocational schools prepare students to meet any licensing requirements needed to enter a trade or profession. Many also award certificates to graduates.

Armed forces schools

provide opportunities for people in military service. These opportunities range from on-the-job training to college. In most cases, the training is designed for jobs in military career fields. However, many skills used in military occupations can be applied to civilian jobs.

Distance learning programs

enable people to learn skills anywhere at anytime through the Internet or television. Students can also listen to or watch lectures on CD’s or DVD’s when it is convenient for them. All students and the instructor can also communicate with each other in online chat rooms or through live video conferences. Students receive assignments, course materials, study guides, and examinations through the mail, by e-mail, or on websites. They submit the completed work to the instructor for grading.

Technical institutes

provide advanced, specialized training in such areas as computer science, electronics, engineering, and metalworking. Many graduates of these schools become _technicians—_that is, workers who assist engineers, scientists, and other highly trained specialists. Most technical institutes have two- or three-year programs. Many are associated with a hospital, university, or other institution.

Community colleges

provide two years of college-level education. They prepare some students to transfer to a four-year college after the student has completed an associate’s degree. They train other students for jobs as technicians and for occupations in such areas as law enforcement, nursing, and office management.

Colleges and universities

offer four-year programs that lead to a bachelor’s degree. Usually, half the time is spent studying a variety of general subjects, such as history, philosophy, or science. During the other half, most students take courses in their chosen career field, such as architecture, education, or journalism. The choice of a career field can determine which program will become a student’s college major just as choosing a major can determine the choice of a career.

Professional and graduate schools.

Such professions as dentistry, law, and medicine require education beyond college at a professional school. Similarly, many students in business, education, science, and other fields attend graduate school for advanced study in their major subject areas. Most professional and graduate schools are part of large universities.

Getting a job

To have a career, you must find job openings, apply for them, and convince employers that you are the best person to hire. An employer can decide whether to hire an applicant by the way the person applies for a job. Therefore, you should know how to write a good résumé (pronounced rehz u MAY or REHZ uh may), a document that describes your achievements and qualifications. You must also know how to find job openings, contact employers, complete job applications, and make a good impression in interviews. All these skills, called job search skills, can improve your chances for gaining employment. However, do not be discouraged if you are not offered the first job for which you apply. Most employers consider several applicants for each opening. Many people apply for numerous jobs before they are hired.

Jobseekers can consult with librarians and career counselors to get help with the tasks of getting a job. Professionals known as recruiters help employers find jobseekers. They also help the jobseeker get jobs. Career counselors help students and adults alike in making career plans and in selecting, changing, or getting a job.

Writing a résumé.

A résumé can be a paper document or an electronic document. A good résumé is neat, well organized, and easy to read.

All résumés should include the same basic information. The length of the résumé depends on how much experience you include. Most beginning jobseekers have a one-page, typed résumé. Begin your résumé with your name, address, telephone number, and e-mail address. You should also include your social networking links, if you have any. Use headings to label the main parts of a résumé. Most jobseekers include an objective, or career goal, on their résumé. This could be as simple as the name of the job for which you are applying.

Next list your employment history, starting with the most recent job. Give the names and locations of past employers, dates of employment, and job titles. Also describe your duties, including your accomplishments. In addition, you can include any related volunteer work.

Also list your education—the names and locations of all schools and training programs you have attended since high school. Include your graduation or attendance dates, major subjects, and any degrees, diplomas, certificates, and honors you received. You can also list skills, such as languages you speak or computer programs you can use, that relate to the job you are seeking. Some jobseekers also list their hobbies, travel experience, or awards on their résumé, if they are notable.

After you have written your résumé on a computer, ask several people to look it over to make sure there are no mistakes. Now you can print your résumé and mail it. You can also send the résumé electronically, through e-mail. Some employers want job applicants to submit résumés directly through the employer’s website. In this case, you may need to copy and paste your résumé into the employer’s online form.

Finding job opportunities.

One of the most common ways to learn about job opportunities is by word-of-mouth. Many jobs are filled by people who have heard of the job opening from professional associates, friends, relatives, or teachers. You should tell the people you know and meet that you are looking for certain kinds of jobs. These people may then tell you if they know of a job opening. This process is known as networking.

Another common way to locate job opportunities is through the help-wanted section of newspapers, newsletters, and other publications. Most help-wanted ads briefly describe the job responsibilities and the qualifications the person needs to do the job. This will help you decide if you want to apply for the job. Often people find job opportunities on the Internet. Jobseekers may search websites for job openings and then apply online. They may also post (enter) résumés on websites for potential employers to review. Employers often search social networking websites to find jobseekers.

Information about job openings is also available from employment agencies. Public employment agencies are run by the government, and their services are free. Private agencies charge jobseekers or employers a fee if a person is hired through the agency. Some schools have offices, or career service centers, that can help students and graduates find jobs.

Jobseekers may also contact employers directly to learn about openings. Directories and other publications list the names, addresses, and phone numbers of employers in various fields.

Contacting employers.

Your first contact with an employer will be either to apply for a known job opening or to find out if any jobs are available. The most common ways of contacting employers are by mail, e-mail, telephone, an employer’s website, or a personal visit to an employer’s office.

If jobseekers contact employers by mail, they should write a letter called a cover letter. This type of letter introduces the applicant to the employer. When you know of a job opening, name the position for which you are applying at the start of the letter. Briefly indicate the qualifications and accomplishments you possess that would benefit the employer. Be sure to include your mailing address, e-mail address, and telephone number so that the employer can reach you. Proofread the cover letter to make sure it has no mistakes. A résumé should be sent with the cover letter.

If you contact an employer by e-mail, type a cover letter as your message. If possible, include a text-only version of your résumé in the body of the e-mail, or attach it as a separate document. These formats ensure that employers will be able to open and read your résumé.

Some jobseekers contact employers by telephone. These applicants may be responding to help-wanted ads. Others call employers to find out if there are any jobs available. In any situation, you should briefly state your qualifications and try to arrange an interview. If you visit the employer’s office to apply for a job, be sure to dress professionally, bring a résumé, and be prepared to fill out an application.

Completing job applications.

Most employers ask jobseekers to fill out an application. These forms help employers find out about your qualifications. Many companies ask applicants to complete paper application forms. Other employers prefer applicants to complete electronic applications. Applicants may enter their information on computers in a company’s office or online at a company’s website. Most applications request the same information that is already on your résumé.

Applications ask for your name, address, telephone number, and the title of the job for which you are applying. In many countries, applications request an identification number, such as a social security number. Most applications ask for a list of your past jobs, supervisors’ names, the dates of your employment, your duties, and your pay. Applications also have you list the schools you attended and any degrees, diplomas, and certificates you received. Some applications ask about your military experience or hobbies. They may also ask for personal references. List people the employer can call to learn about you. Many companies check the accuracy of information included on job applications. Be sure to check your application before submitting it to make sure it is neat and free of mistakes.

Being interviewed.

If your résumé or application indicates you are qualified for the job, the employer may contact you to schedule an interview. The interview may take place over the phone, at the company’s office, at a restaurant, or through video conferencing on your computer. The meeting consists of questions and answers between the job applicant and the employer. The interview enables you to learn more about the job opening and the company. It also helps the employer find out if you are the best person to hire for the job.

Many people prepare for an interview by learning about the employer’s business. They find out about the kinds of products the company manufactures or the services it provides. You can find such information in an organization’s annual report, on its website, or by talking to people who work there. This kind of knowledge can help you ask intelligent questions during your interview. It also shows the interviewer that you are interested in the employer’s business.

Most interviewers pay close attention to the way an applicant acts, dresses, and answers questions. You can make a good impression by arriving on time, offering a firm handshake, and maintaining eye contact. It also helps to speak confidently, be prepared, and eliminate distractions by turning off your cell phone. Your clothing should be clean and professional. Wear the kinds of clothes appropriate to the company, unless the workers wear uniforms.

The interviewer will probably ask about your skills, interests, work experience, and goals. Common questions also include your reasons for applying for the job and how you can contribute to the success of the business. Answer all questions clearly and include examples of your skills. You might find it helpful to think out your answers to such questions before an interview. You should also prepare questions to ask the interviewer about the company and the job.

After the interview, send a follow-up letter or e-mail message. Thank the interviewer for the time spent discussing the position with you. Let the interviewer know that you are interested in the job and can do the work.

The world of work

The world of work is vast and constantly changing. Scientific and technological advances and other developments constantly eliminate jobs and create new ones. Working in a globalized world means jobs are no longer limited to the place where a worker lives. The economy, politics, and other factors affect large numbers of people who may suddenly find themselves without a job. In the past, workers used to get full-time jobs at one company and stay employed there for the rest of their lives. Today, many workers move from job to job or project to project, or even work independently. Some work temporary jobs (short-term work) or flex-time jobs, in which employees may choose the start and end time of their workday.

Teachers and career counselors use a variety of formal sources to help people learn about careers. Many of these sources organize the career information into what are called classification systems. These systems group career fields that are similar. One system, called the Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system, combines occupations into 23 major groups. The groups have similar job duties and may also involve similar skills, education, and training. These groups are (1) architecture and engineering; (2) arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media; (3) building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; (4) business and financial operations; (5) community and social services; (6) computer and mathematical occupations; (7) construction and extraction; (8) education, training, and library; (9) farming, fishing, and forestry; (10) food preparation and serving-related occupations; (11) health care practitioners and technical workers; (12) health care support; (13) installation, maintenance, and repair; (14) legal occupations; (15) life, physical, and social sciences; (16) management; (17) military; (18) office and administrative support; (19) personal care and service; (20) production occupations; (21) protective services occupations; (22) sales and related occupations; and (23) transportation and material moving occupations.

The following sections contain brief descriptions of some of the occupations in the 23 major SOC groups. They describe what the workers do, the work environment, and the training required to perform the occupations. But these examples provide only a general guide.

Architecture and engineering.

All places that people enter or walk on are designed by workers called architects. All structures, from buildings to ships to playgrounds and parks, started with a plan. Those plans involve people’s needs, wants, and budget. Safety and design regulations are also part of the plan. Architects use mathematical, communication, and technical skills to estimate, prepare, direct, and manage the projects. Projects become places to live, work, learn, govern, eat, and shop. In addition to building architects, other job titles include landscape architects and naval architects.

Specialized occupations in this group include cartographers, drafters, and surveyors. Cartographers use data, photographs, and satellite images to produce maps. Drafters prepare technical and detailed drawings of the features of products or structures. Surveyors take measurements to determine air space, land, and water boundaries. They may also gather information about land elevation.

Almost every product, from phones to pharmaceuticals, involves engineering. Engineers use principles of science to solve everyday problems. They design, develop, and test products or maintain systems. Their plans must follow laws and regulations.

Workers specialize in a particular field of engineering, including aerospace, agricultural, biomedical, chemical, civil, electrical, environmental, health and safety, industrial, marine, materials, mechanical, mining and geological, nuclear, and petroleum. Products that result from this work include aircraft, artificial limbs, bridges, clean water, drugs, farm-raised fish, global positioning systems, golf clubs, missiles, nuclear reactor cores, portable music players, submarines, and tools.

Not all engineers work directly on a product. Some, such as health and safety engineers, inspect areas to identify potential hazards. Others, such as industrial engineers, work to eliminate wasteful processes during production. Other workers remove minerals or gas from underground. They include mining engineers and petroleum engineers.

Work environment.

Most architects and engineers work full time in offices, where they have access to specific computer or technical equipment. Sometimes architects must be at the job site. Other workers, such as surveyors and mining and petroleum engineers, perform some or all of their duties outdoors.

Education and training.

Technicians working in architecture and engineering occupations have a high school diploma or an associate’s degree. All others require a bachelor’s or professional degree. While in college, workers should get practical work experience through cooperative programs.

Arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media.

These occupations can include workers who develop and create visually, such as photographers, as well as those who present in an auditory way, using the spoken word or musical sounds. Also included are those who entertain through competition, such as athletes.

Art and design occupations involve the expression of ideas, feelings, and thoughts. Some people believe such expression adds beauty to our lives. Other people express thoughts and ideas in order to share information. Still other forms of expression allow a need to be fulfilled. For example, the need for clothing is filled by fashion designers. Almost all of this work involves creative activities.

Fine artists, photographers, and sculptors create original works of art. They may sell their artwork to individuals or display it in galleries or museums. Multimedia artists use computers to create animation, special effects, and other images for advertisements, movies, and video games.

Designer is a general term for several specific kinds of creativity. Fashion designers study colors, fabrics, and trends before they develop a collection of clothing and accessories. Interior designers plan and furnish indoor areas of homes, hotels, offices, and other buildings. Graphic designers use color, image, and text elements to create art that communicates a message. They may design a company’s logo, a layout for a magazine, or a box for a new product. Industrial designers use their engineering, business, and artistic ability to develop or redesign such products as appliances, automobiles, and toys. Of all the artists and designers, art directors have the final overall responsibility for the creation, and they direct others to carry out the goals of the work.

Workers in the entertainment field typically participate in the performing arts or work behind the scenes. Actors pretend to be characters in plays and movies and on television. Dancers perform movements, using their bodies to express emotions, tell a story, or set a mood. Musicians play such instruments as drums, guitar, and piano. They perform alone or in groups, including orchestras or rock bands. Some musicians record their music. Singers are musicians who produce musical tones using their voices. Conductors direct musical groups, such as choirs and orchestras.

Producers are the business managers of a production. They may select scripts, raise money to finance the production, and set a budget. Directors make creative decisions for a production, such as interpreting the script, casting and rehearsing performers, and working with set and costume designers. Choreographers create new dance routines and teach them to dancers. Composers write music for musicians to play.

Workers in the sports field participate in organized athletic activities. Athletes compete in individual sporting events or team sports. Coaches instruct individual athletes or teams. Scouts evaluate athletes’ performance and recruit talented athletes to play for their team. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials make sure the athletes follow the rules of the sport.

Communications workers deliver ideas and information to the public. Authors may compose such works as articles or technical reports or publish novels. News reporters use interviews, investigative techniques, and other research to gather information for stories to be published in newspapers, broadcast over television or radio, or shared online. Editors review and revise material and prepare it for publication or broadcast.

Radio and television announcers select and introduce music, read the news and weather, and interview guests. Public relations specialists provide information to the public about a business or other organization, to maintain a positive image or raise funds. Translators and interpreters convert speech and written text from one language to another, including sign language for people with a hearing disability.

Some media workers operate equipment and perform other behind-the-scenes jobs. Film and video editors may cut scenes from a film or synchronize soundtracks with images. Broadcast and sound engineering technicians set up, operate, and maintain equipment that controls volume or records sounds.

Work environment.

Many people in this group work in studios, theaters, or sports stadiums. They may work unusual hours or have breaks in between jobs. Some people, including producers and directors, may work under tight deadlines. Musicians, actors, dancers, and athletes must practice many hours. Their work is physically demanding. Coaches may feel pressured by the need to make constant, quick decisions during competitions. Workers such as floral designers must work long hours during the holidays, and professional athletes are affected by peak competitive seasons, such as those in which play-off games are held. Workers such as writers may be self-employed and work at home.

Education and training.

There are no specific educational requirements for many careers in the arts, entertainment, and sports group. Almost all workers in this field have natural talent and must practice or train many hours every day. Specialized training is available beyond high school for some workers. For example, fashion designers may attend an art and design school, and actors may attend acting classes or workshops or go to private acting school. Actors may also enroll in theater programs in college. Some musicians also train in college music programs. Design and media workers usually have a bachelor’s degree.

Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance.

Caring for the places that people live and work is physically demanding work. Grounds maintenance workers care for the environment around apartment buildings, government buildings, office buildings, and other places. They may mow grass, trim bushes, and plant flowers. Janitors may wash floors, empty the garbage, or perform minor repairs. Maids and housekeepers may dust, vacuum, or make beds in such places as houses, hotels, and hospitals. Pest control workers make sure that houses and buildings are free from insects or rodents.

Work environment.

Grounds maintenance workers work outdoors, and their schedule may be affected by the season of the year. Janitors, maids, and housekeepers usually work indoors. Pest control workers have duties both inside and outside of buildings and often kneel, bend, or crawl in tight spaces. Some of these workers must wear protective gear when working with chemicals. They travel to their clients’ site and may work evenings and weekends.

Education and training.

Pest control workers must have a high school education. Other workers in this group may have less than a high school diploma and learn their skills through on-the-job training.

Business and financial operations

. Companies need business and financial operations workers in order to be well organized and run efficiently. Such workers make estimates, review data, evaluate applications, and comply with laws. They also coordinate such activities as development and sales.

Market research analysts find out what people want to buy and how much they are willing to pay. They design surveys, collect data, and make recommendations to businesses. Accountants gather, analyze, and summarize their clients’ financial information. Management analysts, called consultants, advise on reducing costs and increasing profits. Fundraisers gather donated gifts and produce materials to promote the company or organization.

Workers in human resources, also called personnel management, interview and recommend applicants to fill job openings. They also coordinate employee benefits, such as health insurance and retirement savings programs. Tax examiners and collectors and revenue agents determine how much a business must pay in taxes according to government laws and then collect that payment. Workers called meeting, convention, and event planners coordinate all aspects of a gathering for businesses or organizations.

Work environment.

Most business and financial operations take place in office settings. Work is usually full time, with occasional overtime and some travel.

Education and training.

Workers in this field usually have a bachelor’s degree. Those who have only a high school diploma may work in a smaller organization and get on-the-job training.

Community and social services

workers provide assistance to society. People depend on these workers to help meet their needs for daily living, cope with problems, and improve the quality of life in their community.

Workers in this group help individuals, groups, and families by listening, supporting, and treating people. Counselors help people identify their problems and find solutions. They may help people discover their career interests, work out difficulties in their marriage, or recover from mental illness. Social workers connect clients with such community resources as food assistance programs, child care, or health care. Community health workers assist people in adopting healthy behaviors. For example, they may provide blood pressure screening and information about lowering blood pressure.

Members of the clergy, such as ministers, priests, rabbis, and imams, lead religious services and perform rituals. These people also provide counseling to their congregation and participate in community activities, including volunteering in other social service agencies.

Some employees in the community and social services group work with people who have broken the law. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists assist in the rehabilitation of people who have been released from prison.

Work environment.

Community and social service workers are employed in a variety of settings, including businesses, colleges, government, hospitals, nonprofit organizations, and schools. Some workers may travel to serve people in the community. Sometimes these workers must work evenings and weekends, and some must be on call (able to be reached) 24 hours a day.

Education and training.

Most community and social service workers need at least a bachelor’s degree. Many need a master’s degree to provide direct counseling services. Members of the clergy generally study at a seminary after going to college. Some workers need licenses and certifications, depending on the level of service they provide and the laws that govern the geographical area in which they work.

Computer and mathematical occupations.

Workers in this group use technology and mathematics to prepare and analyze complicated procedures or solve problems. The computer workers are often called information technology (IT) workers.

IT workers are found in many kinds of companies. They design, invent, manufacture, maintain, operate, repair, and secure IT products. They may also provide instruction and advice on how to use computers.

Some workers in this group are computer and information research scientists. They design and invent new technology. Computer hardware scientists design hardware (the physical parts of computer systems), such as chips and processors. Computer software scientists write the software (programs or sets of instructions and controls). Computer systems analysts design or modify computer systems to meet the needs of an organization.

Computer programmers write codes (instructions) for computers to follow. They translate the program specifications using various computer languages. Computer network administrators manage an organization’s daily use of computers. They also install the network’s software and hardware. Database administrators use special software to store and organize large, searchable collections of information.

Computer support specialists help computer users. They may answer users’ questions about hardware, such as printers, or about software, such as word processing applications. Web developers create websites. IT security analysts work to prevent cyberattacks (attempts to damage or disrupt a computer system).

Some workers in this group are mathematics specialists. They use their knowledge to conduct research, develop new mathematical theories, or use existing techniques to solve problems in other fields. Statisticians collect, organize, analyze, and interpret data. Their findings provide information that enables others to draw conclusions and make decisions. Actuaries are mathematicians who calculate risk, such as the chance of accidents and death. They help design insurance policies.

Work environment.

Almost all workers in computer and mathematical occupations work in offices, laboratories, or industrial plants. Some of these employees must work outside of normal business hours to resolve problems while the computers are not in use. Some workers _telecommute—_that is, use computers to do some or all of their work from home.

Education and training.

Almost all occupations in the computer and mathematical group require a bachelor’s degree. Research scientists have a doctorate degree in computer science, which requires four or five years of schooling beyond the bachelor’s degree. Some computer support workers have an associate’s degree and receive on-the-job training. Actuaries must pass a series of exams to become certified after receiving a bachelor’s degree.

Construction and extraction.

Workers in construction build, modernize, and repair bridges, factories, highways, houses, and other structures. Extraction workers carry out engineers’ plans to remove minerals and other natural resources from the earth.

Most construction workers specialize in certain building materials. For example, carpenters use wood to construct the framework of buildings and such features as hardwood floors, cabinets, and stairways. Brickmasons use bricks and similar materials to build arches, walls, and fireplaces. Cement masons pour concrete for sidewalks, roads, and floors.

Electricians install wiring and fixtures that supply electricity for light, heat, air conditioning, refrigeration, and communications systems in homes and offices. Solar photovoltaic installers may set up solar cells to produce solar power. Plumbers install gas, sewer, and water systems. Roofers cover the roofs of buildings with such materials as asphalt, metal, or shingles.

Some construction workers do the finishing work on a building. Carpet installers lay down padding and carpet floors. Tile and marble setters apply decorative tile or marble to walls, floors, and other surfaces. Painters apply paint or stain to walls and ceilings. Other construction-related workers include building inspectors, fence erectors, and highway maintenance workers.

Extraction workers include mining machine operators and rock splitters. Derrick operators work in oil fields and use pumps to make sure drilling fluid is flowing properly.

Work environment.

Many construction workers perform their jobs outdoors in all types of weather. The work is often physically demanding and sometimes dangerous. While the work is often full time, occasional periods of unemployment occur after a project is completed. Some workers may need to travel to work sites for extended periods, especially for work in oil fields.

Education and training.

Most workers in this group have a high school education. Many construction workers learn their trade through apprenticeship programs. Some repair workers complete training programs offered by their employers or at vocational or technical schools or community colleges. Most maintenance workers learn their skills through on-the-job training.

Education, training, and library.

Workers in this group help people learn. Teachers teach academic, life, and career-related skills and transmit cultural values to students of all ages. Some teachers coach sports teams or oversee after-school clubs. Librarians and other library workers help people find information.

Preschool teachers use a variety of play activities to help children up to 6 years old develop intellectual, physical, and social skills. Teachers may read stories, create learning activities, and care for children.

Kindergarten teachers prepare children who are 4 to 6 years old for first grade. They use such activities as group play, games, and storytelling to teach basic subjects and classroom rules.

Elementary school teachers teach basic academic and social skills to students from ages 5 or 6 to age 12, 13, or 14. They usually teach many subjects to one class of students who are the same age. These teachers monitor personal development and help students overcome their weaknesses.

Middle school teachers teach basic subjects to students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grade. Often they teach one subject to different classes of students throughout the day. They prepare their students for standardized tests and high school. High school teachers cover one or two subjects in more detail than was taught in elementary school. Often they teach the same subject several times a day. They prepare students for college or for a job after graduation. They may have students from more than one grade level in a single class.

Special education teachers provide instruction for students with specific needs. They work with children who have mild, moderate, or severe disabilities that may involve emotional, learning, mental, or physical disorders. Special education teachers collaborate with other teachers, parents, and community or social service workers to develop strategies to meet the individual needs of the student.

Postsecondary teachers, called college and university faculty, teach advanced courses. They specialize in one area, such as business or English, and teach a variety of courses in that field. Most postsecondary teachers also conduct research, write articles or books, supervise student workers, and serve on college committees. Some teach classes online in distance learning programs.

Many kinds of teachers hold classes for adults who are out of school. Some adult literacy teachers provide courses in basic skills, such as reading and writing. Vocational education teachers prepare students for occupations that do not require a college degree, such as automobile repair.

Teacher aides work under the supervision of teachers. They help with classroom activities. Aides may also grade tests and homework, provide individual attention to students, and help answer parents’ questions.

Training specialists and training managers offer programs that increase the knowledge and skills of employees at work. They also write training manuals.

Librarians organize material, plan programs, maintain databases and equipment, and help people find resources. Depending on the specific work area—such as a government, school, law, or medical library—the librarian may also conduct research, work with teachers on lesson plans, or organize legal papers.

Archivists maintain documents that are historically important. Curators and museum technicians maintain collections so people can learn about art, history, or other subject areas. They often conduct programs or tours to present the collection to the public.

Work environment.

Teachers work in public or private schools, usually for 10 months of the year. In addition to working during school hours, they often spend evenings grading papers or meeting parents. Postsecondary teachers may spend less time inside the classroom and have more flexibility with their schedule and activities. Some teachers may experience stress if classrooms become overcrowded or they have trouble disciplining students. Most librarians, archivists, and curators work indoors in such institutions as government agencies; museums; and public, school, or university libraries.

Education and training.

Most librarians need a master’s degree in library science. Some positions have additional requirements, such as a teaching certificate. Almost all teachers need a bachelor’s degree. Most also need to earn a government-issued certification before they can teach. Some preschool teachers and teacher aides need only a high school diploma or associate’s degree. Many high school teachers and most college and university faculty have advanced degrees, such as a master’s degree, a doctorate, or a professional degree. Almost all teachers continue their education by taking additional classes throughout their career.

Farming, fishing, and forestry.

Workers in this group help meet our basic needs. They raise much of the food we eat and many of the materials used to make our clothes and build our homes.

Farmers, also called agricultural workers, use their knowledge of science, technology, business, and plants and animals. They oversee the entire operation of a farm. They may decide which crops to plant; raise and market livestock; hire, train, and supervise farmworkers; keep track of the farm’s finances; and monitor world events that may affect prices. Modern methods of raising crops may include organic farming (raising crops without synthetic chemicals) and using such modern equipment as a global positioning system.

Farmworkers help farmers. Such workers may plant, care for, and harvest crops. They may feed farm animals, clean their living areas, and administer medications. Agricultural equipment operators run a variety of farm equipment, including tractors or balers that gather and bind hay. Animal breeders use knowledge of genetics and animal science to improve the quality of livestock by selecting superior animals for reproduction. For example, they may choose to breed animals that produce large quantities of eggs, meat, or milk.

Agricultural inspectors make sure farm products meet certain standards and laws. They give products a grade after they check such characteristics as color, condition, and size. Some inspectors also ensure that agricultural workers are following health and safety regulations.

Fishing and hunting workers use a variety of equipment, including nets, hooks, and weapons, to catch fish or trap animals. This work provides human food, animal feed, bait, and fur clothing

Forest and conservation workers include foresters, fallers (also called fellers), and log graders. Foresters manage and protect forests and woodlands and their resources. They may decide which trees should be cut for timber, direct the planting of new trees, and protect forests from pests. Fallers cut down trees with axes or chainsaws. Log graders evaluate logs cut from trees to estimate their market value.

Work environment.

Almost all workers in this group work outdoors. Many of the jobs are physically demanding, though modern equipment has made some work easier. For example, robots may be used to milk cows. Some of the work is dangerous. Many of the jobs are seasonal, requiring periodic overtime work. Some fishing and logging crews may be away from home for weeks or have long commutes to isolated areas.

Education and training.

There are no formal educational requirements for most occupations in this group. Many of these workers learn their skills on the job. Animal breeders may have a bachelor’s degree in animal science and genetics.

Food preparation and serving-related occupations.

Workers in these occupations prepare or serve food and drinks in restaurants, bars, cafeterias, and other places where service is offered to customers or guests. Some work in private homes. Restaurant hosts and hostesses greet guests, seat them at tables, and offer them menus. Waiters and waitresses take orders and serve food and drinks. Bartenders prepare or mix drinks. Cooks select ingredients, use weights and measures to mix proper amounts, and chill food or heat it, perhaps by baking, boiling, or grilling. Chefs supervise the cooks and other kitchen workers, develop recipes, plan the menu, and order supplies. They may also prepare and cook food, and they may own the restaurant. Dishwashers and attendants, or bussers, clean up after the meal is over.

Work environment.

Food preparation and serving occupations are highest on the list of work that is done in the evenings. That is when most restaurants are open. Fast food cooks and servers may be stationed near hot ovens and grills. They work in a fast-paced setting that can be stressful. Waiters and waitresses spend many hours standing, and they often carry heavy trays of food. Food settings must meet strict sanitary conditions, so the work environment is usually quite clean.

Education and training.

Most food occupations do not require a high school education. Many cooks and chefs learn their skills through vocational and apprenticeship programs or by taking college courses.

Health care practitioners and technical workers.

Workers in this group help people and animals live healthier lives. The services they provide include preventing, diagnosing, and treating diseases and conditions. There are many kinds of practitioners, and they specialize in caring for all parts of the body, from teeth to lungs to feet.

Physicians diagnose, treat, and try to prevent illnesses. Primary care physicians treat general medical problems, but many physicians specialize in a particular area of medicine. Dermatologists focus on disorders of the skin, hair, and nails. Psychiatrists deal with disorders of the mind. Surgeons perform operations.

Other types of practitioners include dietitians and nutritionists, who plan food service and programs to promote healthy eating. Genetic counselors assess family risk for such inherited disorders as birth defects. Chiropractors treat diseases and conditions by manipulating or adjusting the spine and related parts of the body. Optometrists diagnose vision problems and prescribe eyeglasses or contact lenses. Podiatrists diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases and conditions of the foot and lower leg. Veterinarians treat animals.

Other health care professionals also provide medical care. Physician assistants provide basic medical care under the supervision of a physician. Nurses take care of sick and injured people and people with disabilities. They also help healthy people stay well. Registered nurses may assist physicians during treatments and examinations, monitor patients’ conditions, give medications and vaccinations, and update patients’ medical records. Advanced practice nurses, such as certified nurse practitioners and certified nurse-midwives, are registered nurses who have completed specialized training. Licensed practical nurses, also called licensed vocational nurses, assist registered nurses and doctors by providing routine patient care.

Some health care practitioners are called therapists. Therapists work in many specialized areas. Physical therapists help people recover from an injury by improving a person’s movement while managing pain. Radiation therapists treat cancer. Exercise physiologists plan fitness programs so the body can function better. Speech-language pathologists work with people with problems related to talking, such as stuttering. Audiologists detect and diagnose hearing disorders, and hearing aid specialists fit patients for hearing aids.

Many health care workers perform tests and procedures that help other practitioners diagnose and treat diseases and conditions. They are often called technologists or technicians. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technologists operate scanners and create and view images of the body. Cardiovascular technologists conduct or assist in tests and procedures to diagnose disorders of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels.

Medical and clinical laboratory technicians collect samples of patients’ blood and other bodily fluids or tissues. Radiologic technologists prepare patients for such imaging procedures as X rays. They also operate the equipment used during the procedures. Dental hygienists clean and polish teeth, take X rays of the teeth, and teach their patients how to properly brush and floss.

Other health care workers play an important role in patient care. Emergency medical technicians (EMT’s) drive ambulances or fly specially equipped helicopters to the scenes of accidents. They provide immediate medical care to critically ill or injured people and transport them to medical facilities. Medical records technicians organize and manage patients’ health information, using codes for accuracy and electronic systems for accessibility. Athletic trainers help people avoid or recover from athletic-related injuries.

Work environment.

Many health care practitioners work weekend, evening, or late-night shifts. Some workers deal with seriously ill or injured patients and may be exposed to various diseases. Many may be called in to work at any time to handle emergencies. Some work outside of medical facilities, where conditions may be unclean and dangerous. The work can be physically and emotionally stressful, yet personally rewarding.

Education and training.

Preparing for a health care career can take many years of study. Most chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians, podiatrists, and veterinarians earn a bachelor’s degree before they begin their medical training to receive a doctorate or professional degree. Audiologists need a doctoral degree, as do physical therapists. Speech-language pathologists, occupational therapists, and physicians’ assistants must have at least a master’s degree. Dietitians and athletic trainers must have at least a bachelor’s degree. Other health care practitioners, such as registered nurses or respiratory therapists, usually need an associate’s degree.

Health care support.

Workers in this group help people live healthier lives by supporting the services of health care practitioners. Health care support workers provide medical care as nursing assistants, home health aides, and physical therapy assistants or aides. They work under the supervision of a physician. For example, medical assistants may take a patient’s temperature or collect bodily fluid samples. They may also schedule appointments or maintain medical records.

Another occupation that provides direct patient care is a massage therapist. Massage, or direct touch to the skin, helps relieve pain and increases range of motion and muscle strength.

Some health care support workers perform tasks that help physicians provide patient care. For example, phlebotomists draw blood from patients for medical tests or research. Orderlies transport patients or equipment in a medical facility. Other workers may not provide direct patient care. Pharmacy aides, for example, may stock medical supplies and operate cash registers. Similarly, medical transcriptionists use electronic devices to translate a practitioner’s abbreviated medical reports into fully understandable forms for record-keeping purposes. Veterinary assistants provide similar medical support to animal doctors.

Work environment.

Many workers who provide health care support are on the job on weekends, evenings, or during late-night shifts or emergencies. Some may be exposed to various diseases. The rate of injuries is higher than average because of the physically and emotionally demanding nature of the work. Many work in clean medical facilities, but some, such as veterinary assistants, work outside or travel to various locations, including patients’ homes.

Education and training.

Preparing for a health care support career can require specialized study. Massage therapists and medical transcriptionists need post-secondary training offered by vocational schools or community colleges that may take one or two years. Depending on an area’s laws, some assistants need only a high school education combined with on-the-job training or possibly a one-year accredited program leading to a certificate.

Installation, maintenance, and repair.

Workers in this field dismantle, inspect, install, maintain, reassemble, refinish, repair, and replace all kinds of equipment or machines that people use for transportation, comfort, or enjoyment. Often such equipment is electrical, but it may also be mechanical. It is important for the equipment to run properly and to be well-maintained for safety reasons.

Most workers specialize in certain equipment or materials. For example, workers who repair computers or office machines do not also fix home appliances. Similarly, home entertainment installers do not also install radio, cellular, or tower equipment. Some workers specialize in repairing diesel engines, and others in repairing glass or automotive bodies. The size of the equipment may differ as well. Some workers repair heavy vehicles used in farming. Others repair motorcycles or bicycles. Some, such as locksmiths, work on equipment that has been in use for many years, but others work on more modern equipment, such as wind turbines.

Work environment.

Many installation and repair workers perform their jobs outdoors, in repair shops, or in factories. They may be exposed to fumes, heat, or noise. They may need to lift heavy parts and work in awkward positions to make repairs. Working to maintain strict safety standards may cause stress. Full-time work is common, with the possibility of evening and weekend work when equipment fails.

Education and training.

Most workers in this group have a high school education. Many repair workers complete training programs, often on the job, offered by their employers or at vocational or technical schools or community colleges.

Legal occupations.

Workers in this field help people protect and preserve their rights and freedoms by making sure everyone knows and follows the law.

Lawyers, also called attorneys, represent clients in a court of law. They advise their clients and draw up such legal documents as divorce agreements. They may have many different titles and duties, depending on their area of specialization, including defense attorneys, environmental lawyers, legal aid lawyers, or litigation lawyers. Judges are public officials that preside over the legal processes in courts. They may advise lawyers, give instructions to a jury, or determine the punishment for people found guilty of a crime.

Paralegals, also called legal assistants, perform routine legal tasks under a lawyer’s supervision. Paralegals may do preparatory work for lawyers, conduct legal research, and assist lawyers during trials. Court reporters document all words spoken during trials, hearings, and other official proceedings. They use special machines, such as a stenotype or digital recorder, to create word-for-word transcripts of what was said.

Work environment.

Most workers in legal occupations work in courtrooms, offices, and law libraries. Many lawyers and paralegals work long hours while they prepare for a court case.

Education and training.

Most lawyers have a college education and a professional degree from a law school. This process usually takes seven years after high school. Lawyers must then become licensed by passing a bar exam. They continue their education through additional classes each year. Most judges have been lawyers. Judges are often appointed or elected. Paralegals usually have an associate’s or a bachelor’s degree and have completed a paralegal training program. Employers often require court reporters to be licensed after completing a training program offered by many technical and vocational schools.

Life, physical, and social sciences.

Workers in this group, called scientists, explore how the world works. Using scientific methods, they conduct experiments, analyze the data, and explain the results. Their discoveries can change the way people live and work in the future. Scientific activities are usually one of three types. Basic research is conducted to gain scientific knowledge that is not directly applied to real-world situations. Applied research is conducted to solve a general problem in the real world. Development applies the knowledge to create processes or usable products. Such research can be categorized into three different areas: life, physical, and social sciences.

Life scientists study living matter. Specialists in the life sciences include agricultural and food scientists, biochemists, zoologists, foresters, and epidemiologists. Agricultural scientists study the relationship of animals and crops to their environment. They develop ways to improve the quality and quantity of crops or livestock. Food scientists study the levels of fat, protein, sugar, and vitamins in foods.

Biochemists study the chemical processes of living things. They examine the composition and function of molecules in cells and tissues. Biochemists may help determine the effectiveness of new medications. Zoologists study animals. Most zoologists specialize in a certain type of animal. For example, entomologists study insects. Epidemiologists study outbreaks of diseases. They try to figure out what caused the outbreak, how to control the disease, and how to prevent it from spreading.

Physical scientists study the parts of nature that are not alive. Specialists in the physical sciences include astronomers, physicists, chemists, geoscientists, and environmental scientists. Astronomers study the universe, including comets, planets, and stars. They also help plan space missions. Physicists study the properties and behavior of matter and energy. This may include the study of electricity, gravity, heat, and nuclear energy.

Chemists investigate the characteristics of substances. Many chemists work to improve or create new products, such as medications and artificial fibers. Geoscientists, also called geologists and geophysicists, study the composition, structure, and history of Earth. They may study fossils, rocks, and soils or explore for coal, gas, ground water, oil, and other natural resources. Geophysicists use physics to research Earth’s physical properties and processes. They may study earthquakes and tremors, glaciers, mountains, oceans, and volcanoes.

Environmental scientists work to protect the surroundings in which people live and work. They perform research to determine the causes of air, noise, soil, and water pollution. They investigate possible ways to prevent and control these problems.

Social scientists study human society. Specialists in the social sciences include anthropologists, economists, political scientists, psychologists, and sociologists. Anthropologists who specialize in cultural anthropology study the origin and development of human cultures. They compare the arts, beliefs, customs, daily life, inventions, languages, social relationships, and values of cultures throughout the world today or of earlier civilizations. Anthropologists who specialize in physical anthropology study changes and variations in the human body.

Economists study how people produce, distribute, and use goods and services. They conduct research and analyze data on economic trends and issues.

Psychologists study behavior and mental processes. They administer tests, conduct interviews, observe people, and perform experiments. The information they obtain helps explain why people act, feel, and think as they do. Many psychologists provide counseling to individuals, couples, and groups to help understand or change behavior or feelings. Some identify and treat mental disorders and learning disabilities.

Sociologists study behaviors of groups of people. They observe human society, specifically social institutions such as religious or political organizations. They study how groups are formed, how people interact in groups, and how groups influence the behavior of their members.

Political scientists study the origin and operation of various forms of government, called political systems. Political scientists study elections, public opinion, and relationships between one country and another and among public and governmental institutions.

Work environment.

Most life, physical, and social scientists work routine hours, though some set their own hours. Generally, they work in an office or in a laboratory, often at a university. Most scientists work as part of a team. Some scientists, such as soil and plant scientists and anthropologists, may do much of their work outdoors. Such field work often involves travel. Some workers, including chemists, must take safety precautions while they work.

Education and training.

Technicians working in the sciences may be hired with an associate’s degree. Most occupations require a bachelor’s degree for entry-level jobs. Workers need a master’s degree for more advanced work. Anthropologists and epidemiologists need a master’s degree for most positions. Life, physical, and social scientists who plan to do research or teach at a university must have a doctoral or professional degree.

Management.

Managers plan, direct, and coordinate the work of organizations and businesses. They set budgets and goals and hire and supervise employees. Managers may be found in all areas of a business. They include administrators, human resource and sales professionals, and top executives. They are also found in all types of businesses, such as construction, education, medicine, and transportation. Even city mayors, state governors, presidents of countries, and other elected officials are managers.

A business or organization usually has three levels of managers, though it may have many more. Each level has a different amount of authority or responsibility and manages different numbers of workers. Upper managers, such as the chief executive officers and president of a company, have the most authority. They usually determine company policies and the long-term strategies for an organization. Middle managers may be in charge of a specific department in an organization, such as accounting. They report to upper managers and are responsible for making decisions about how the company should operate over the short term. Supervisory managers, such as factory supervisors, have the least authority. They may make decisions that relate to the daily operation of an organization.

In some fields, people with managerial duties may not have the word manager in their title. The editor in chief of an encyclopedia, for example, and the principal of a school are both managers.

Work environment.

Most managers work in an office setting, though some travel to different offices in the organization. Others work remotely—that is, they work in another location and communicate electronically with the employees they supervise, using such technology as e-mail. Some managers may feel stress if they are required to meet specific goals within a short time or if they must deal with customer complaints.

Education and training.

Although requirements vary widely by position and industry, many managers have college degrees and many years of work experience. Courses in business administration are helpful, but a specific major in college may not be necessary. Leadership experience is also helpful. Some professional organizations offer formal training programs for managers.

Military

personnel work in a variety of occupations. Their main job is to protect citizens and defend their country.

Some jobs in the military are very similar to civilian occupations. For example, the military needs administrators, cooks, doctors and nurses, engineers, and truck drivers. Other occupations are military-specific. They include jobs that are not found in civilian life. Armored assault vehicle crew members, for example, drive tanks and operate machine guns. Infantry soldiers operate and maintain such weapons as grenades, machine guns, and rifles. Artillery and missile crew members inspect, store, and test ammunition, missiles, and torpedoes. Radar and sonar technicians use radio or sound wave technology to identify objects and determine the position of the objects. Military-specific occupations also include officers, who direct and train others, perform duties to ensure the success of missions, and manage the operations of such systems as communications.

Work environment.

Military personnel often work and live on or near military bases. Housing and recreation opportunities are available on most military bases. Work schedules are usually full time, and soldiers are generally stationed for two to four years at one location. Then they move to a new assignment and location. Some job assignments involve dangerous situations. They may also require working nights and weekends to complete a mission.

Education and training.

The armed forces in many countries usually require applicants to have at least a high school education. Most officers have bachelor’s degrees. Each branch of the military may also have its own requirements regarding age, aptitude, or physical ability. Training is specific to the assigned occupation, in addition to covering such general skills as teamwork, perseverance, and leadership.

Office and administrative support.

Almost every organization employs workers to perform such tasks as filing, answering telephones, operating office machines, receiving payments, and distributing mail. Organizations also need employees to produce, organize, and analyze documents, letters, reports, and other records. Communities need such workers as emergency dispatchers (also called 911 operators in the United States and Canada) and postal service workers.

Administrative assistants provide support for other workers. They may keep records; compose and edit documents, letters, email, and reports; schedule meetings; and operate office equipment. They may use computers or scanners to record such data as information about a customer. Specialists in the area of records systems gather and analyze information. Financial clerks carry out the financial transactions of a bank or insurance company, including computing bills or charges. Accounting clerks produce financial records for organizations. They may use bookkeeping software, online spreadsheets, and databases. Auditing clerks verify an organization’s financial records. Billing clerks prepare customers’ bills for various goods or services. Payroll clerks calculate employees’ pay and prepare paychecks.

Many administrative and office support workers work directly with customers. Telephone operators assist callers with telephone calls. Customer service representatives answer customers’ questions and resolve complaints. Receptionists greet an organization’s visitors. They may also answer telephones and provide information about the organization. Bank tellers assist customers with their banking transactions. Tellers may cash customers’ checks or make deposits into customers’ accounts.

Other workers are concerned with the delivery of letters, packages, and other items. Shipping clerks keep records of all shipments that leave an organization. They may prepare items for shipment by calculating the shipping costs and making mailing labels. Receiving clerks keep records of all shipments that come into an organization. They verify the contents of each shipment and make sure the items were not damaged during delivery. Postal service clerks perform many duties, such as selling stamps, sorting mail, and checking items for correct postage. Mail carriers deliver mail on assigned routes.

Work environment.

Many workers in this group work in an office. They may sit for long periods at a desk, often repeating the same kinds of tasks. Mail carriers often work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Shipping and receiving clerks may work in warehouses or stockrooms and often lift or carry heavy packages. Some administrative support occupations provide only temporary work. Dispatchers must handle frequent, stressful emergency calls and often work nights or weekends.

Education and training.

Office and administrative support workers have a high school education. Some employers prefer to hire candidates with some college experience.

Personal care and service.

Workers in this category perform tasks related to people’s basic needs as well as their leisure needs. They may care for children, for elderly or disabled family members, or for animals. Such occupations may involve feeding, exercising, or grooming activities. Some tasks performed by these workers are ones that people can do themselves but prefer not to, perhaps because the jobs are difficult or time consuming. Other tasks require special skills.

Some workers in this field help people with their appearance. Barbers, hairdressers, and cosmetologists take care of the hair and skin. Barbers usually work on men’s hair and may also shave or trim beards and mustaches. Other workers, called manicurists and pedicurists, clip, shape, and polish their client’s finger- and toenails.

Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors teach people how to exercise. They may design individual workout programs and show their clients how to use proper techniques while they exercise. Child-care workers, such as nannies and day-care providers, take care of children while their parents are at work or away from home. They feed and dress the children and organize play activities.

Personal care aides help elderly or disabled adults with daily life, including household chores. Funeral service workers take care of people after they have died. Embalmers prepare bodies for funerals. Funeral directors help families plan funeral services, including coordinating religious rites.

Some people also need workers to care for their pets. Animal trainers teach animals to obey commands or prepare animals for competitions. When people travel, they need the help of workers such as tour guides; baggage porters, who handle luggage; and concierges. Concierges arrange personal services for such clients as hotel guests, apartment residents, and office tenants. They may make reservations for dinner or theater events and arrange leisure activities. Entertainment attendants, such as gaming service workers who work at casinos and racetracks, interact with customers and make sure they have fun. Some may explain and enforce rules, while others direct activities or run such equipment as movie projectors.

Work environment.

Many personal care workers do their jobs on weekends and spend much of their time standing. Most work settings must be clean and germ-free, especially for personal appearance workers. Some recreation activities are outdoors, while gaming service workers could be exposed to such hazards as second-hand smoke and noise. Child-care workers and home-care aides usually work in their employer’s home.

Education and training.

A high school diploma and some vocational training or certification are usually required for most personal care and service occupations. On-the-job training and government-issued licenses are most common. A few recreation workers obtain a bachelor’s degree, and funeral directors need an associate’s degree in mortuary science.

Production occupations.

Workers in this group are involved in making or preparing goods by hand or machine. These products range from simple wooden objects, such as tables and chairs, to complex computer parts. The many occupations in this category may include assembling, processing, operating, printing, tending, and painting.

Some production workers are involved in food processing. Bakers mix ingredients, then bake bread, pies, cakes, and pastries. Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers use knives and other equipment to package the food for purchase by consumers. Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers sew, clean, or repair clothes, fabrics, and shoes. For example, upholsterers make, replace, or repair fabric coverings for furniture or for such fixtures as boat seats.

Assemblers put together parts of products or make finished products, such as automobiles, aircraft, appliances, and electronic devices. Some workers focus on engines or electromechanical parts. Others may do precision assembling to construct or adjust particularly complex goods, such as timing devices or computer equipment. Other production occupations deal with metals or plastics. Machinists operate automatic or computer-driven machines, called machine tools, that are used to shape or cut metal or plastic. They use blueprints, sketches, or computer-aided designs to calculate, install, align, secure, and adjust tools and parts.

Other occupations in this group are in the printing industry. Prepress workers prepare materials for printing, often using digital imaging technology. Printing press operators run digital or other machines that reproduce words and images on paper and other materials. The machines may fold paper into pamphlets or fasten loose pages into books.

Woodworkers make various items out of wood. Most use automated machinery, but a few use hand tools and small power tools. Jewelers make jewelry from such precious metals as gold, silver, and gemstones. Jewelers may also repair and appraise (determine the value of) jewelry. Quality control inspectors examine items to make sure they match the manufacturer’s specifications and have no defects.

Work environment.

Most employees in the production industry work in factories or shops. Frequently they work on assembly lines and must keep working at a set speed so the product keeps moving along the line. Common working conditions include high levels of dust, heat, or noise. Some factory jobs require physical strength or the ability to stand for long periods. Other jobs involve repetitive tasks. Occasionally the work is performed in high security areas, such as power plants.

Education and training.

Almost all employers in this group hire workers with a high school education. Most workers receive on-the-job training. Other workers, such as tool-and-die makers, participate in apprenticeship programs or study at college or at vocational or technical schools. Some workers, such as semiconductor processors, have an associate’s degree in a field such as advanced manufacturing or microelectronics.

Protective services occupations.

All communities have emergencies and need to keep their homes, businesses, and residents safe. Workers in protective service occupations monitor and inspect emergency situations or prepare for and prevent emergencies or crimes. They help people to safety and make sure they stay safe. Some protective service occupations, such as correctional officers, work with individuals while others, such as fire inspectors, focus on buildings. They often use special equipment, including closed-circuit television cameras or X-ray machines, to carry out their duties.

Firefighters not only put out fires, they also respond to calls about hazardous materials, carry out search and rescue missions for lost or injured people, and teach fire prevention. Law enforcement workers include a variety of workers who must protect the safety of individuals or areas. Detectives and criminal investigators solve crimes. They may work for a city or may be hired by an individual or company as a private detective or investigator. Police officers and fish and game workers also make sure laws are obeyed. Other protective service workers ensure the safety of animals, swimmers, skiers, casino customers, or students. In the United States, transportation security screeners work under the direction of the Department of Homeland Security at air, sea, or rail terminals.

Work environment.

Protective service workers do their jobs in public buildings, stores, and recreational facilities. They often spend long hours on their feet. While some work is routine, the risk of injury or encountering a hazard is high. Protective clothing is necessary for some workers, such as fire investigators. Working evenings, weekends, and holidays is not uncommon. The work is often stressful, such as when a correctional officer is on duty in an overcrowded prison or a police officer must arrest a criminal.

Education and training.

A high school diploma is needed to work in this field. Firefighters obtain additional education in an area such as fire science. Many protective service jobs require on-the-job training.

Sales and related occupations.

Workers in sales inform people about products or services and persuade them to buy. They may also demonstrate products, answer questions, negotiate prices, process payments, and maintain accounts. Most sales workers sell their products in stores, but others may sell over the Internet or the telephone, or inside people’s homes.

Retail salespeople work in retail stores, such as department, discount, or grocery stores. They sell merchandise directly to the consumer or customer. Retail salespeople may help customers find what they are looking for and process the payment. Wholesale and manufacturing sales representatives buy large quantities of items from several manufacturers. Sales representatives for wholesalers then try to sell smaller amounts of those items to retail stores. Manufacturers’ representatives sell goods to other manufacturers, to wholesalers, or to retail stores.

Other sales representatives sell both products and services. Telemarketers call customers over the telephone and persuade them to buy goods or services. Sales engineers sell complicated scientific and technological products and services to businesses. Insurance sales agents sell various types of insurance policies, including automobile, health, and life insurance. Securities sales agents buy and sell securities (stocks and bonds) electronically or at an exchange market, such as the New York Stock Exchange. Financial services sales agents sell such banking services as certificates of deposit.

Real estate agents help their clients buy, sell, or rent buildings and land. They may determine the value of a property a client wants to sell and prepare advertisements describing the house, building, or land. Advertising sales representatives sell time and space for ads that appear on such media outlets as radio and television, or Internet websites. They also sell space for companies with such outdoor sales facilities as billboards and benches.

Other types of sales workers include cashiers, travel agents, and models. Cashiers receive money for payment, often processing credit or debit card transactions. Travel agents plan and sell transportation and accommodations, such as hotel rooms, for people who want to travel for leisure or work. Fashion models promote the sale of clothing and accessories by wearing these items at fashion shows or during photo shoots for advertisements in magazines.

Work environment.

Many workers in this group work irregular hours, often in the evenings or on weekends. Some travel to meet with potential customers and may be away from home for some time. Other sales workers have flexible hours. Some sales workers feel stress because they are expected to sell a certain amount of product in a specified time. Although some work in secure environments, others work in places at high risk for robbery.

Education and training.

Some employers prefer that retail sales workers have a high school education. On-the-job training may last a few days or months. Real estate agents must have at least a high school education and must be licensed. A bachelor’s degree is required for entry-level jobs as securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Employers hiring wholesale and manufacturing sales representatives may require only a high school diploma for nonscientific or nontechnical jobs. However, workers may need a bachelor’s degree for technical or scientific sales jobs.

Transportation and material moving.

Industrialized societies need fast, safe, and dependable methods for moving people and goods from one place to another. Workers in the transportation field help passengers and goods travel by air, land, and water.

Pilots and air traffic controllers are two of the best-known air transportation workers. Pilots operate and navigate aircraft and are responsible for the safety of their aircraft, passengers, crew, and cargo. Air traffic controllers direct the movement of aircraft preparing to take off or land. Flight attendants offer air travelers services and explain safety rules when flying.

Land transportation workers can be divided into three groups: (1) road and highway, (2) rail, and (3) water. Road and highway transportation workers move goods and people by automobile, bus, or truck. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs are hired to drive cars or limousines to take passengers wherever they need to go. Bus drivers may drive a city route, take groups to different cities, or drive students to and from school. Truckdrivers operate trucks to pick up, transport, or deliver packages and other goods. They may drive short distances within a specific area or long distances in a region or country.

Rail transportation moves freight and passengers by trains, streetcars, and subways. Locomotive engineers operate trains. Conductors supervise the crew on passenger and freight trains. On passenger trains, they may collect tickets and inform the engineer when it is safe to leave a station after a stop. On freight trains, they may check the contents of each car and make sure the appropriate cars are removed or added at each stop.

Water transportation involves barges, general cargo ships, passenger liners, riverboats, tankers, and a wide variety of other vessels. Captains are the top officers on ships. They are responsible for their ship, passengers, crew, and cargo. Officers called mates assist the captain. They navigate the ship and supervise other crew members. Ship engineers make sure such ship systems as boilers, generators, and pumps, are working properly.

Other jobs in transportation support the movement of goods or people. For example, traffic technicians study the numbers of vehicles in an area in relation to speed and weather conditions. Hoist and winch operators use power equipment to lift and pull loads or to get goods on or off a means of transportation.

Work environment.

Most transportation workers travel as a part of their job. Workers assigned to long-distance trips may be away from their homes for long periods. Some transportation employers, such as airlines, allow employees to travel at no cost or at reduced fares. These workers often work nights, weekends, and holidays. Many transportation workers work outdoors, though air traffic controllers work in secure control towers at airports.

Education and training.

Employers prefer to hire road, highway, and railway transportation workers who have a high school education. These workers often receive on-the-job training. Many airlines prefer to hire pilots who have a bachelor’s degree. However, all pilots must have attended a flight school or have learned to fly in the military. Air traffic controllers receive formal and on-the-job training. Many water transportation workers have a bachelor’s degree.