Counter Reformation, also known as the Catholic Reformation, generally refers to a period of Roman Catholic Church history in the 1500’s and 1600’s. The Counter Reformation consisted of two related movements: (1) a defensive reaction against the Reformation, a movement begun by Martin Luther in 1517 that gave birth to Protestantism, and (2) a Catholic reform.
Counteracting Protestantism.
The Roman Catholic Church called the Council of Trent partly as a defense against Protestantism. The council met in sessions between 1545 and 1563 in Trent, Italy. It defined Catholic doctrine on questions disputed by Protestant theologians. The questions included original sin, grace, free will, the seven sacraments, the Mass, and the relation between Scripture and tradition. The council arranged for the pope to issue a catechism and books on liturgy (acts of worship), so there would be greater uniformity in church teachings. The church also published a list of books Catholics were forbidden to read because the books were considered harmful to faith or morals. In 1542, the church reorganized the Inquisition in Italy to help the courts fight Protestantism more effectively.
A number of wars resulting from religious conflicts broke out as Catholic governments tried to stop the spread of Protestantism in their countries. Such attempts led to civil war in France from 1562 to 1598 and rebellion in the Netherlands between 1566 and 1648. Religion was an issue in the fighting between Spain and England from 1585 to 1604. It was also a cause of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), which centered in Germany, but eventually involved most of the nations of Europe.
Catholic reform.
The movement to reform the Roman Catholic Church started even before the Reformation. In Spain during the late 1400’s and early 1500’s, Cardinal Francisco Ximenes de Cisneros made efforts to end abuses that had developed in the church. The Council of Trent tried to stamp out abuses by the clergy. It ordered bishops to live in their dioceses, visit their parishes, and set up seminaries to train priests.
During the Counter Reformation, many religious orders experienced reform and considerable growth. The Capuchins played a major role in the renewal movement through their preaching. The Jesuits and the Dominicans led a revival of philosophy and theology at Catholic universities. Jesuit colleges trained many members of upper-class Catholic families in Europe. Prayer and religious devotion intensified. Books teaching meditation and personal reform, such as those by Saint Ignatius Loyola and Saint Francis de Sales, became popular. Large numbers of schools were set up in order to teach catechism.
Missionaries brought new peoples to Catholicism. Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, and members of other orders worked among the inhabitants of Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
The Counter Reformation also affected art and literature. It inspired an enthusiasm and emotionalism that is represented, for example, in the works of the English poet Richard Crashaw in the mid-1600’s. The Jesuits staged elaborate dramas at their colleges and influenced such artists as the Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens and the Italian sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
