Debate is the process of presenting opposing viewpoints in a thoughtful manner according to certain rules. Many schools have debate teams that compete against other schools in tournaments. Political candidates often debate one another during election campaigns. Representatives in legislatures debate over proposed laws.
In formal debates, the discussion is governed by rules that both sides have agreed to beforehand. Formal debates also involve the use of proof in the form of evidence and analysis. At a school tournament, every debater in the same event will discuss the same resolution. The resolution is the statement being argued in a debate. For example, “Should the death penalty be used as punishment?” is a resolution.
Political debate
There are several forms of political debate. Some of the best-known political debates occur between two or more candidates for the same political office. These debates often happen during the election campaign and serve as an important part of a candidate’s strategy.
Political debates are historically significant because they can sway the outcome of elections. For example, many experts believe the televised debates between candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon marked a turning point in the 1960 United States presidential race. Nixon led in polls prior to the first debate. However, Kennedy’s performance during the debate moved him into the lead and helped him win the election.
Political debates also influence the direction of government policies. Public debates give elected leaders an opportunity to explain their plans to the voters and see how people feel about them. A favorable reaction may encourage politicians to pursue their plans. An unfavorable reaction may cause a change of course.
Legislative debate forces representatives to explain and justify their proposals to their fellow lawmakers. It also helps expose weaknesses in proposals so they may be changed before the proposals take effect. Many legislative bodies, including the United States Congress, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the Knesset in Israel, engage in debate each time they meet.
Largely because of the influence of television and radio, political debates tend to differ from competitive or school debates. Political debates have come to emphasize sound bites rather than complex arguments. Sound bites are brief phrases that can be easily repeated by the press. Critics charge that the practice of engaging in sound bites results in pleasing but meaningless statements.
Academic debate
Academic debate, also known as competitive debate, is a popular activity in high schools and colleges worldwide. Many schools sponsor debate teams that may participate in local, state, provincial, national, or even international tournaments. In the United States, the National Forensic League provides the framework for debate competition and serves as the governing body for high school academic debate. It also hosts the largest high-school speech and debate tournament. The Cross Examination Debate Association, the National Parliamentary Debate Association, or the National Forensic Association sponsor college tournaments in the United States.
Other countries have similar organizations. For example, the Australian Debating Federation and the Canadian Student Debating Federation (Fédération Canadienne des Débats d’Étudiants) sponsor debate at the high school level. The Canadian University Society for Intercollegiate Debate (Société Universitaire Canadienne pour le Débat Intercollegial) governs university debate. The World Universities Debating Council hosts an international college debate tournament each year at a different university. This event is often called “Worlds.”
Types of resolutions.
A statement known as a resolution provides the framework for most academic debates. This statement may also be called a proposal, a proposition, or a topic. Both teams are given the resolution before the debate and prepare their case—that is, arguments that support their position—based on it. Depending on the type of debate, teams may have a number of months or only a few moments to prepare.
There are three forms of resolutions. They are proposals of policy, value, or fact.
A policy resolution
states that a person or group, often a government, should perform a certain action. For example, “The Australian government should increase social services for people living in poverty within its borders” is a policy resolution.
A value contention
examines ideals in conflict, arguing that something should be made a priority, valued, or upheld over something else. For instance, “The obligation of the United Nations to protect human rights worldwide ought to be valued above its obligation to respect the right of an individual nation to control its own borders and internal affairs” is a value contention.
A proposal of fact
argues that something is more or less true based on the evidence available. For example, “Failed nations are a greater threat to the United States than stable nations” is a proposal of fact.
Framework of a round.
Academic debates typically involve two opposing sides. These two competing sides may be called the affirmative (yes) and negative (no), the proposition and the opposition, the pro and the con, or the government and opposition, depending on the format of the debate. For a fair debate to occur, each side must have an equal opportunity to present its argument. For this reason, speeches in academic debate are timed, and debaters typically alternate speeches.
Most tournaments have several rounds. Each round usually consists of constructive speeches, cross examinations, and rebuttals. Ordinarily, competitors argue the affirmative side for some rounds and the negative side for others.
At the beginning of the debate, each side presents a case outlining its basic argument. These speeches, which present both cases for the first time, are called constructive speeches. The opposing side responds to each constructive speech by critically examining the arguments given and comparing the case with its own. Academic debates may also include a time of cross examination. During cross examination, debaters directly question their opponents concerning particular arguments or aspects of the case. During the second half of the debate, the teams give their rebuttals. In giving a rebuttal, each team tries to disprove the arguments made by its opponent.
Adjudication.
Competitive debates are almost always adjudicated (judged) by a third party. Sometimes, the audience votes on the debate. This practice is called a division of the house. In other cases, a judge or panel of judges cast a ballot at the conclusion of the debate. Judges vote for the side they believe was most persuasive. During the debate, the competitors try to promote a favorable decision for their side by highlighting key voting issues—that is, the primary arguments that judges should consider.
Forms of competitive debate.
There are many types of competitive debate, including policy debate, Lincoln-Douglas debate, and public forum debate.
A policy debate
is sometimes called a cross examination, or CX, debate. It evaluates a policy resolution. The resolution almost always remains the same throughout the competition season, which is usually one school year. Having the resolution remain the same allows a team to gather large amounts of in-depth research. Unlike most other forms of debate, policy debaters amass boxes of newspaper clippings and other types of evidence, which they use to prove their points. Policy debate involves two teams of two members.
A Lincoln-Douglas debate,
or LD debate, is modeled after the 1858 Lincoln-Douglas debates. The original Lincoln-Douglas debates were held as part of the campaign between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas for a U.S. Senate seat from Illinois.
In high schools in the United States, the Lincoln-Douglas format is a one-on-one debate that focuses on a value resolution. The resolution changes about every two months. At the college level, the Lincoln-Douglas resolution remains the same throughout the academic year. A Lincoln-Douglas debate typically has fewer and shorter speeches than a policy debate does. As a result, Lincoln-Douglas debaters tend to cite less evidence than policy debaters do. LD debaters rely more heavily on logic and analysis.
A public forum debate
engages two teams of two members over a resolution provided beforehand. The resolution changes each month. Before the start of the round, a coin is flipped. The team that wins the flip may choose either which side to take (pro or con) or the order in which to speak. The other team then makes the remaining selection. In addition to constructive and rebuttal speeches, a public forum debate involves crossfire. In crossfire, debaters take turns questioning each other on the merits of the case. Near the end of the debate, all four debaters engage in grand crossfire, in which each of the four can raise questions. At the end of the debate, each side summarizes with a final speech. This speech, known as the final focus, gives each team one last opportunity to explain why it thinks it won the debate.
See also Logic; Oratory; Public speaking.
