Education is the process by which people acquire knowledge, skills, habits, values, or attitudes. The word education is also used to describe the results of the educational process. Ideally, education should help people develop an appreciation of their cultural heritage and live more satisfying lives. It should also enable people to become productive members of society, both as citizens sharing in democratic processes and as workers in the economy.
Education involves both learning and teaching. Sometimes, people learn by teaching themselves. But they also learn with the help of other people, such as parents or teachers. Parents are a child’s first and perhaps most important teachers. But few parents have either the time or the ability to teach their children everything they need to know. Instead, parents turn over many educational responsibilities to professional educators.
Teachers and administrators have the chief responsibility for education in schools. The organized instruction they provide is called formal education. Learning that results from less-organized instruction is called informal education. Both formal and informal education can take place inside and outside of schools and classrooms.
This article deals mainly with formal education, especially the kind given in schools. But many other institutions and agencies also provide education. Churches, for instance, educate their members through church teachings. Such organizations as the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, and 4-H provide educational activities in many communities. In addition, television, radio, newspapers, and magazines may offer educational programs and articles. Since the late 1980’s, computers have become increasingly important in education. The ability to use the Internet has greatly influenced the way education is delivered and the way children participate in their own learning.
Nations vary greatly in the kind of schooling they provide and in their manner of regulating and supporting education. Most developed nations have long-established educational systems. Such nations usually have high literacy rates (percentages of citizens who can read and write). Less developed countries generally have low literacy rates. Many less developed countries have a shortage of teachers and classrooms.
A modern society cannot survive without education. Education helps people acquire the skills they need for everyday activities, such as reading street signs, using the Internet, and managing their money. It also gives individuals the specialized training they may need to prepare for a job or career. For example, people must meet certain educational requirements and obtain a license or certificate before they can practice accounting, law, or medicine. In addition, education helps people acquire skills that make their lives more interesting and enjoyable. Such skills include those needed to participate in a sport, paint a picture, or play a musical instrument.
Some educators study the objectives (goals) of education. This has led to the classification of educational objectives into three areas: (1) the cognitive area, (2) the affective area, and (3) the psychomotor, or locomotor, area. The cognitive area aims at increasing a person’s knowledge and intellectual skills. It deals with the ability to think and reason effectively. The affective area deals with feelings, values, and appreciations. It promotes the development of moral and spiritual values and healthy attitudes and emotions. Education in this area may be called character education or social emotional learning. The psychomotor area involves the development of a person’s muscular or mechanical skills. These skills often include handwriting, speech, physical education, and technical abilities.
Countries throughout the world invest large amounts of time, money, and other resources to provide education for their citizens. Millions of people worldwide are directly involved in education as students or teachers. Millions more hold nonteaching jobs related to education. Such jobs inside schools include cafeteria workers, nurses, and secretaries. Education jobs outside of s chools include school bus drivers, textbook publishers, and producers of educational materials and equipment.
Kinds of education
The school systems of all modern nations provide both general education and vocational education. Most countries also provide special education programs for children with disabilities or other special needs. Adult education programs are offered for people who wish to complete or improve their education after they no longer attend regular elementary schools or high schools. Colleges and universities also provide a wide range of programs for people who want to continue their education during adulthood.
General education
aims at producing intelligent, responsible, well-informed citizens who take an active interest in the world around them. Its primary goal is to transmit a common core of knowledge and values rather than to develop trained specialists.
Almost all elementary education is general education. Elementary schools teach skills that people use throughout life, such as reading, writing, and mathematics. Students learn moral values and the rights and duties of citizenship. They also receive instruction in a variety of subjects, including geography, history, and science. In industrialized countries, almost all young people continue their general education in high school. Most college students are also required to take some general education courses.
In Western nations, advanced general education is frequently called liberal education. Liberal education aims at broad mental development. Students are taught to investigate all possible solutions to a problem before reaching a conclusion or planning a course of action. The branches of learning that aid in this development are called the liberal arts. These include the humanities, mathematics, and the biological, physical, and social sciences. Liberal education is important to democracies because democratic governments depend on the ability of citizens to judge ideas and events intelligently.
Vocational education
aims mainly at preparing individuals for a job. Some high schools, called vocational high schools, specialize in vocational programs. Vocational high school students must also take some general education courses. Community colleges and specialized schools offer advanced vocational and technical training in a variety of areas. Some vocational programs provide education in specific occupational fields, such as food preparation, auto mechanics, and health care.
Many businesses and industries conduct vocational programs to help their employees develop new skills and improve the quality of products and services. One type of education, known as human resource development (HRD), helps employees learn precisely what to do in their jobs and how to work as part of a team. HRD is usually referred to as training. Instructors in HRD are generally called trainers rather than teachers.
Special education
For children with disabilities, special education usually involves modified instructional techniques and the use of different materials, such as recorded books instead of printed ones. It may also involve simplifying the language of instruction or allowing students more time to take a test. Special education services can also include the use of aides, tutors, and special therapies.
Special education also involves programs for gifted children—that is, children who may be unusually intelligent or have exceptional ability in art, mathematics, or some other area. Special education helps such children develop their talents while they receive individual attention to address their specific needs.
Adult education.
Millions of adults participate in some kind of adult education. Many colleges and universities provide extension courses, which allow adults to take college-level courses to gain skills and knowledge to improve their everyday lives. Many extension courses are scheduled for evenings or weekends, so that people who work during the day can attend.
Beginning in 2011, some universities began offering massive open online courses (MOOC’s). MOOC’s are online learning environments usually provided at little or no cost to students. They can deliver college courses to large numbers of people worldwide at the same time. MOOC’s may include discussion sessions, lab work, lectures, and tests. They can be self-paced or led by an instructor. Most MOOC’s do not offer academic credit, but some do award certificates of completion for a fee. MOOC’s can also be used for corporate training.
Governments also sponsor many adult education programs, including programs for people in the armed forces. In addition, businesses, community agencies, hospitals, industries, labor unions, libraries, museums, prisons, and television stations provide organized educational opportunities for adults.
The study of learning and teaching
Education requires the dual activities of learning and teaching. Ideally, teaching should result in increased opportunities for learning. This section discusses how the two activities take place.
How people learn.
There is no complete agreement among scientists and educators on the nature of human learning. But certain ideas are generally accepted. Learning theories are based largely on findings of modern psychology.
Types of learning.
Psychologists have traditionally focused on four main types of learning: (1) classical conditioning, (2) instrumental conditioning, (3) multiple-response learning, and (4) insight learning.
Classical conditioning is based on stimulus-response relationships. A stimulus is an object or a situation that excites one or more sense organs, thus leading to a response. In classical conditioning, learning occurs when a new stimulus begins to produce a response similar to a response originally produced by a different stimulus. Studies of classical conditioning are based on experiments performed in the early 1900’s by the Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov. Pavlov trained dogs to salivate to such signals as lights, tones, or buzzers by presenting these signals each time he gave them food. Classical conditioning occurred when the new stimulus (the lights, tones, or buzzers) began to elicit the response of salivation in much the same way that the original stimulus (the food) did. Pavlov called the learned response a conditioned response because it depended on the conditions of the stimulus. Classical conditioning is often called respondent learning. 
In instrumental conditioning, a person learns to perform an action as a result of what happens after the action is completed. For example, a child may learn to beg for candy. There is no one stimulus that elicits the response of begging. Instead, the child begs because such behavior occasionally results in receiving candy. Every time the child receives candy, the tendency to beg becomes greater. Receiving candy, therefore, reinforces the child’s behavior. The American psychologist B. F. Skinner performed important experiments with instrumental conditioning in the 1930’s. Skinner’s experiments were based on those performed earlier in the 1900’s by the American psychologist E. L. Thorndike. Instrumental conditioning is also called operant conditioning.
Multiple-response learning involves the combination of many learned actions to form a more complicated pattern of behavior. In most cases, various stimuli guide the process. For instance, in memorizing a poem or learning a new language, a student first learns sequences of words. The student then combines these sequences into a complex organization. Learning that involves the combination of many parts requires much practice. To examine this kind of learning, psychologists have observed animals learning to run through a maze. After wandering the maze numerous times, the animal eventually learns the correct sequence of turns.
Insight learning involves learning to solve a problem by understanding the relationships of various parts of the problem. The Estonian-born American psychologist Wolfgang Kohler performed important insight experiments involving chimpanzees in the early 1900’s. He found, for instance, that when a banana was placed high out of reach, the animals discovered that they could stack boxes on top of one another to reach it.
Theories of learning.
Scientists have developed numerous theories to further explain the processes of learning. Most such theories fall into one of four main categories: (1) theories that emphasize the forming of habits, (2) theories that emphasize cognition, (3) humanistic theories, and (4) physiological theories.
Many psychologists believe that people learn new things by forming habits. These psychologists believe that when we experience a new problem, we use responses learned from past experiences to solve it. If this procedure does not lead to the solution, we use a trial-and-error approach—that is, we try many possible solutions until we find the right one. This process, in turn, leads to the formation of new habits. Many people learn to modify their habits through behavior modification techniques. These techniques often involve systems of rewards to encourage and reinforce new habits, such as improvements in classroom behavior.
A second group of psychologists stresses cognition (the act of knowing) above the importance of forming habits. These experts feel that the development of habits cannot explain the complex processes involved in the understanding of concepts and ideas. Instead, the cognitive approach emphasizes the importance of the learner’s discovering and perceiving new relationships and achieving insight and understanding.
A third group of psychologists focuses on humanistic theories. According to these theories, much human learning results from each individual’s need to express creativity. Almost any activity—including athletics, business dealings, and homemaking—can serve as a creative outlet. The psychologists in the humanistic group believe that people gain a sense of control, growth, and knowledge from engaging in challenging activities. For learning to occur, people must feel independent, confident, worthy, and respected by others.
Some scientists examine the changes in the nervous system that take place during learning. They practice a physiological approach to the study of learning. This approach emphasizes bodily processes, such as specific changes in the nervous system, that take place to produce learning.
How teachers guide learning.
Good teachers are well educated, know their subject, and understand their students. They are familiar with the principles of education, the psychology of human development, and the theories of learning.
Theories of teaching have not been as fully developed as have theories of learning. Many educators feel that theories of learning provide sufficient guidelines for teaching. Teachers generally combine behavior modification, cognitive, and humanistic principles. Many teachers do not consciously follow any theory but rather depend on experience and intuition to guide them. See Teaching.
Education in the United States
Unlike most countries, the United States does not have a national educational system. Instead, each U.S. state is responsible for organizing and regulating its own system of education. The systems organized by the various states have much in common. This section discusses how the state systems are organized, controlled, and supported. It also discusses the role of the federal government in education.
The organization of U.S. education.
Formal education in the United States is divided into various levels that are arranged somewhat like the rungs of a ladder. Early childhood education is the first rung of the educational ladder. It is followed by elementary education, intermediate education, secondary education, and higher education. Ordinarily, students complete one stage before they continue to the next.
School attendance is compulsory (required) in every state. The age through which attendance is required varies among the 50 states, ranging from 15 to 18 years. Many states make certain exceptions to the age requirements. In most states, for example, students fulfill the attendance requirements when they graduate from high school, even if they have not reached the required age.
Early childhood education
is generally designed for children 5 years of age and younger. Its chief aim is to develop the habits, attitudes, and skills that provide readiness for school. Children who develop an interest in learning before they enter elementary school will likely do better in school than children who have not developed such an interest. In the United States, more than half of all children from age 3 through age 5 attend some kind of early childhood education program. The programs are of two main types: (1) preschools, also called nursery schools, and (2) kindergartens.
Individuals, private organizations, and some school systems operate preschools. Most preschools are designed for children 3 or 4 years old. The children learn to get along in a group supervised by a teacher. They are encouraged to express feelings and ideas through building, dancing, drawing, playing, singing, and speaking. Some preschools use a teaching method developed by the Italian educator Maria Montessori. The Montessori method recommends the use of special teaching materials and learning tasks to help children develop awareness, confidence, and independence.
The U.S. federal government sponsors a special preschool program called Head Start. The program has helped set up thousands of classrooms, called Head Start centers, for young children from low-income families. The centers provide the children with learning experiences they may not receive at home.
Various public and private organizations sponsor day-care, or child-care, centers for children. Some of these centers resemble preschools, but others simply provide care for young children and do not offer planned education.
Most school systems and many private organizations operate kindergartens, intended mainly for 5- and 6-year-olds. Kindergartens offer more advanced activities than do most preschools. They help prepare children for the learning experiences that follow in elementary school.
Elementary education.
Children generally attend elementary school from about age 6 or 7 to about 11 or 12. Most elementary schools provide kindergartens for 5- and 6-year-old children, though elementary education itself usually begins in first grade. Most U.S. communities have at least one elementary school. Elementary schools are also called grade schools or grammar schools.
A traditional elementary school offers educational programs for children in kindergarten through fifth grade (called K-5 programs), or kindergarten through sixth grade (K-6). Some schools provide programs for grades K-8. Children of similar age are usually in the same grade. They meet in the same classroom with the same teacher for most or all of the day. This traditional arrangement is sometimes called a self-contained classroom. Some self-contained classrooms may include students from more than one grade level. The pupils are expected to meet the standards for their age group before being promoted to the next grade. But promotion practices differ from school to school.
Some communities have nongraded, or ungraded, schools. In nongraded schools, the pupils are not grouped according to age. Instead, pupils of different ages meet together for certain subjects or activities. Each student is encouraged to advance at his or her own rate. Frequently, the groups are composed of children with similar abilities or interests. In most nongraded schools, pupils receive general evaluations rather than specific grades. Achievement tests indicate a child’s progress. Nongraded plans of organization are also called continuous progress plans.
Some elementary schools use a teaching method called team teaching. In these schools, teachers are organized into groups called teams. Each team is responsible for a large group of students. Each teacher on a team may teach a certain subject or a certain part of a unit of study to the entire group. In some cases, the pupils may be divided into smaller groups to allow more time for individual instruction and group discussion.
Intermediate education.
Since the 1960’s, there has been an increased emphasis on the intermediate or middle grades. As a result, most school systems today offer special programs for the middle grades. These middle school or junior high school programs are designed to help students make the transition from elementary schools to the more demanding secondary schools. The grade structures of these schools vary widely. Most offer grades 6-8, but such combinations as grades 6-7, 7-8, and 7-9 are also common. Some intermediate schools include grade 5 as well.
In some schools, children in the middle grades receive instruction in self-contained classrooms. In others, students attend different classes with different teachers for each subject. This arrangement is known as departmentalized instruction. Many intermediate schools today offer a combination of the two, with students spending part of their day in a self-contained classroom and the rest of the day moving among departmentalized classes.
Secondary education
in the United States is the responsibility of senior high schools. It is designed to help students become responsible members of the community and to prepare them for a job or for advanced studies. High school graduates receive a diploma to show that they have completed their secondary education. Almost all the young people in the United States enroll in high school, and most remain through graduation.
Many communities have four-year high schools with grades 9-12. Others offer high school programs for grades 10-12. High schools enroll students who have completed middle or junior high school, or an eight-year elementary school program. Some high schools are nongraded and operate much as nongraded elementary schools do.
Most high schools offer both general and vocational courses of study. These schools are called comprehensive high schools. Students who plan to continue their education after high school usually take a general, or college preparatory, course of study. Many high schools offer advanced placement classes for college-bound students. Students who pass these courses, and meet certain minimum scores on nationally administered examinations, can earn college credit. Some students who do not complete high school diploma requirements can take the General Educational Development (GED) exam to earn a high school diploma equivalent.
Students who intend to get a job immediately after graduation may choose a vocational course of study. Some large school systems operate separate vocational high schools. However, many states have changed high school graduation requirements to include more college preparatory course work. As a result, many vocational programs have experienced drops in enrollment.
Higher education
is education beyond high school. More than half of all high school graduates in the United States get some advanced schooling. The United States has several thousand institutions of higher learning. Over half are privately owned and operated, and most of these are small liberal arts colleges. Many of the publicly owned institutions of higher learning are large state universities. Most college and university students in the United States attend public institutions.
Institutions of higher learning include a wide variety of community colleges, technical institutes, colleges, universities, and professional schools. Community colleges, sometimes called junior colleges, offer two-year programs in both general and career education. Most technical institutes offer two-year programs in such fields as automotive engineering, business, and electronics. After completing a two-year course at a community college or technical institute, a student receives an associate’s degree or a certificate in the case of certain types of specialized training. Colleges and universities provide a wide selection of liberal arts and career programs. Most offer a four-or five-year liberal arts program that leads to a bachelor’s degree.
Many colleges and most universities offer advanced courses leading to a master’s or doctor’s degree. Most universities also have professional schools, which provide training and award degrees in such fields as business, dentistry, education, engineering, law, and medicine. Students ordinarily must complete a certain amount of college work before gaining admission. Some professional schools are not connected with a university but award the same kinds of degrees that professional schools of universities do.
Control and support of U.S. education.
The Constitution of the United States makes no mention of education. However, the 10th Amendment gives the states any powers the Constitution does not prohibit or specifically grant to the federal government. Because the Constitution does not give the federal government control over education, the states have this power. But the Constitution does give Congress the power to provide for the “general welfare of the United States.” Congress has used this power to deal with educational matters that affect many Americans.
Control.
Every state has passed laws governing education and has set up a system of public schools. A state school system provides facilities for every level of education, from early childhood education through higher education. Parents may send their children to public schools, or they may enroll them in private schools that are independent of state control. Private schools controlled by religious groups are generally called parochial schools. The Roman Catholic Church maintains most of the parochial schools in the United States.
Various court decisions have held that parents may even educate their children at home. But children who receive homeschooling must receive an education equal to that of public school pupils. A state may test children educated outside the public school system to ensure that they meet standards set for students who attend public schools.
Every state except Hawaii has transferred some of its control over public education to local school districts. Under rules set by the state, a school district is responsible for running the local public schools, from hiring teachers and constructing buildings to planning courses of study. Each state government determines the number and composition of school districts in the state. Some large districts include all or part of a city or county. Other districts are much smaller and may include only a rural township or community. In some states, all districts include grades K-12, while in other states there are elementary (K-6 or K-8) districts and high school (7-12 or 9-12) districts instead of, or in addition to, K-12 districts.
Since the early 1990’s, many states have allowed the establishment of charter schools. Charter schools typically are independent of government regulations, though many of them receive some public funds to support their operations. They receive approval of their charter either from the local school district, from another public institution such as a state university, or from the state board of education. The organization of charter schools varies because of differences in charter school legislation from state to state and the preferences of those who establish the schools.
Financial support
for U.S. public education comes almost entirely from local, state, and federal tax money. Private schools are supported mainly by tuition fees and by contributions from churches, private organizations, wealthy donors, and former students.
In the past, almost all the money needed to support the public schools came from local property taxes. Citizens pay property taxes based on the value of buildings, land, and certain other items they own. Over time, as the cost of education increased, and as taxpayers began to resist increases in property taxes, states began to provide more support for the cost of education.
State funds are used both to increase available resources for schools and to help equalize differences in the ability of local school districts to raise property taxes. Many legal experts and educators consider property taxes an unfair method of supporting public schools. For more information about property taxes and school financing, see the section “How should education be financed?” later in this article.
The federal government and education.
Various agencies and branches of the federal government deal with educational matters. Congress decides how much money the government will spend on education and what types of programs federal funds will support. Many federal departments and agencies are responsible for distributing the funds and managing the programs approved by Congress. In addition, the Supreme Court of the United States and other federal courts decide constitutional questions relating to education.
The chief educational agency of the federal government is the U.S. Department of Education. The department finances and administers programs to improve education. It also conducts educational research. The National Center for Education Statistics, a division of the department, collects and publishes information on educational activities in the United States. The federal government aids and encourages education in two main ways: (1) It tries to ensure that all children have equal educational opportunities, and (2) it provides funds for certain types of education when such aid is considered beneficial to the nation as a whole.
Ensuring equal opportunity.
The federal government cannot directly control education in the states. But it can insist that every state provide equal educational opportunities for all its citizens. For example, in the historic 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the Supreme Court ruled that compulsory segregation of the races in public schools was unconstitutional. Other rulings have helped promote equal opportunity for such groups as women, people with disabilities, and people who do not speak English. The section in this article titled “Education for whom?” gives further information about equal opportunity.
Providing financial assistance.
The federal government spends billions of dollars a year on education. Some of this money supports educational institutions owned and operated by the federal government. These schools include the air force, military, and naval academies; schools for American Indian children; and schools for the children of military personnel and government employees serving abroad.
The federal government grants large sums to state departments of education. Some of the money is used to support state educational programs. But most of the funds are distributed among local school districts, which may use them for purposes specified by Congress. For instance, Congress provides money for special services for children from low-income families. Local districts also receive federal funds to purchase textbooks, pay for school health services, and finance experimental education programs. A district must make these programs and services available to all children, including those who attend private schools.
The federal government also grants loans and scholarships to college and university students to help pay their tuition and other school expenses. In addition, the government grants funds to public and private institutions of higher learning. Without federal aid, many colleges and universities would be forced to close.
History
The first major milestone in the history of education occurred in prehistoric times with the development of language. Language enabled people to communicate more precisely than they could by signs and gestures. But early people had only a spoken language. They had no system of writing or numbering and no schools.
Young people in prehistoric societies were educated through apprenticeship, imitation, and rituals. Through apprenticeship, a young person learned, for example, how to build a shelter by working with an older, experienced master builder. Through imitation, young people acquired the language and customs of their parents and other adults in their society. Through the performance of rituals, they learned about various aspects of life and the ties that bound them to their group. The rituals usually involved myths, which dealt with such things as the group’s history and its gods and heroes.
Today, young people in all societies still learn through apprenticeship, imitation, and rituals. But as society has grown increasingly complex, teachers and schools have taken on more and more responsibility for educating the young.
The beginning of formal education.
A second major milestone in the history of education was the invention of writing. The Sumerians, who lived in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, invented a system of writing about 3500 B.C. The Egyptians developed a writing system about 3000 B.C. Both systems included a method of writing numbers as well as words. The development of writing systems made possible the beginning of schools as we know them.
Before people developed writing, a teacher had to repeat orally what was to be learned until the student memorized it. A child could thus learn only what the teacher had memorized. But by using writing systems and teaching children to read, teachers could make available the knowledge of many people, not only their own. However, the first writing systems, which were a kind of picture writing, were awkward and difficult to master. As a result, special schools arose in which teachers taught reading, writing, and calculation.
About 2500 B.C., both the Sumerians and the Egyptians established schools to teach reading and writing. Many of the schools were taught by priests. Most students came from upper-class families. Only a small number of boys, and even fewer girls, received schooling.
A student’s training, which lasted from about the age of 5 to 17, was strict and monotonous. Students learned to write by copying the same literary selections again and again. They learned arithmetic by copying business accounts. Those who completed their education formed a separate social class called scribes. Scribes were hired for any task that required a knowledge of reading, writing, or arithmetic.
Civilization spread from Sumer and Egypt to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. About 1500 B.C., tribes in this region, who each spoke one of the closely related Semitic languages, developed the world’s first alphabet. The alphabet gave education another valuable tool. Alphabetic systems make writing easier than picture systems because they require far fewer symbols.
Certain Hebrew Semitic tribes developed a more democratic educational system. Other educational systems had been designed mainly for the sons of upper-class families. But the Hebrews required boys of every social class to attend school. The Hebrew schools were religious institutions conducted by priests called scribes. They taught boys to read the sacred writings of the Hebrew people, which were collected in a volume called the Torah. Hebrew girls did not attend school but were taught at home by their mothers.
Ancient Greek education.
The Greeks made the greatest educational advances of ancient times. In fact, Western education today is based largely on the ancient Greek model. Greek civilization flourished from about 700 B.C. to about 330 B.C. During this period, Greek arts, philosophy, and science became the foundations of Western thought and culture. Homer and other Greek writers created new forms of expression, including lyric and epic poetry.
Ancient Greece was divided into city-states, independent states that consisted of a city and the region surrounding it. The educational system of each city-state aimed to produce good citizens. Athens and Sparta, two of the most powerful city-states, had different ideals of citizenship. In Sparta, citizens were judged largely by their political and military service. The government controlled education. Boys received physical and military training, but few learned to read or write. In Athens, unlike Sparta, citizens were judged more by the quality of their minds. Athenian citizens were also expected to develop their bodies and serve the state.
Athens made the greatest educational advances of any Greek city-state. But Athenian education was far from democratic. Education was limited to the sons of Athenian citizens. Less than half of all Athenians were citizens. Slaves made up a large part of the population and were not considered worthy of an education.
Athenian boys started their education at about age 6. But they did not go to schools as we think of schools today. A trusted family slave took them from teacher to teacher, each of whom specialized in a certain subject or certain related subjects. Boys studied reading, writing, arithmetic, music, dancing, and gymnastics. As the boys advanced, they memorized the works of Homer and other Greek poets. Boys continued their elementary education until they were about 15 years old. From about ages 16 to 20, they attended a government-sponsored gymnasium. Gymnasiums trained young men to become citizen-soldiers. They emphasized such sports as running and wrestling and taught civic duty and the art of war. Students held discussions to improve their reasoning and speaking ability.
Some Athenian gymnasiums became centers of advanced learning. By the 400’s B.C., advanced learning in Athens consisted of philosophy and rhetoric. Philosophy included the study of logic, mathematics, morals, and science. Rhetoric included the study of government, history, and public speaking.
During the 400’s and 300’s B.C., Athens produced such great philosophers and teachers as Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. About 387 B.C., Plato founded a school of philosophy that became known as the Academy. Some scholars believe the Academy was the world’s first university. Aristotle founded a similar school called the Lyceum in 335 B.C.
Most young Athenian women received no formal education. They mainly learned domestic skills—such as how to prepare food, make clothing, and care for infants—from their mothers. However, some women belonged to religious organizations through which they developed skills in music, poetry, and dancing.
Greece, like other countries in ancient times, had many somewhat secret religious groups that carried on educational activities. Even Plato’s Academy and Aristotle’s Lyceum resembled religious brotherhoods united by sacred oaths and ceremonies. Some occupational organizations also had religious and educational functions. For example, early medical science developed among families who joined together in a secret religious society to educate their children in the study of medicine.
In these religious and occupational groups—as in all areas of Greek life—young males associated closely with adult men. The Greeks believed that a boy could best learn what he is and should try to become by imitating an older, ideal model. For this reason, every young Greek male became the companion of an older citizen. In most cases, this person was a friend of the boy’s father or a relative. It was hoped that a strong love would develop between the two. As a result, the younger male would want to imitate his companion and in so doing take on his virtues.
Ancient Roman education.
After about 600 B.C., an advanced civilization began to develop in Rome. By about 100 B.C., the Romans had built the most extensive educational system to that time. Their system was patterned after that of ancient Athens. But unlike the Athenians, the Romans provided schooling for girls as well as boys. The children of wealthy citizens were taught by a ludus (introductory teacher) from about the age of 7 to 10. These children learned to read and write both Greek and their native language, Latin. Girls received only an elementary education. Boys from about 10 to 14 years old attended a secondary school run by a grammaticus (teacher of grammar). In secondary school, the boys continued their study of Greek and Latin grammar and literature. The Romans also established institutions of higher learning. These schools of rhetoric prepared young men for careers in law and government.
Between 100 B.C. and A.D. 100, Roman poets, historians, and orators created a written literature that included the sacred myths and beliefs of the Roman people. The greatest poet was Virgil. Other important writers included the poet Ovid, the historian Cornelius Tacitus, the general and statesman Julius Caesar, and the orator and statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero. The Latin writings of these men, along with the works of Greek scholars and poets, became the basic curriculum for formal education throughout the Western world.
Although the Romans adopted many Greek educational traditions, they surpassed the Greeks in some fields. In agriculture, engineering, and law, for example, the Romans not only developed greater knowledge and experience, but they also put this knowledge into writing. As a result, written information and formal instruction played an increasingly vital role in the apprenticeships in these fields.
By about A.D. 200, Roman culture had spread over much of the Western world, and most educated people thought of themselves as Roman citizens. Indeed, the basic issue of teachers and philosophers had become “What does it mean to be a good Roman?”
Religion and early Western education.
The religion of the Hebrew people, Judaism, became the parent religion of two other religions—Christianity and Islam. Much of the Hebrews’ holy writing became the Old Testament in the Christian Bible. The New Testament, which deals with Jesus Christ and his followers, was added as further revelation of God’s truth. The Muslims, whose religion is Islam, incorporated much of the Bible in their holy book, the Qur’ān. All three religions thus have a common origin as well as sacred books and other things in common. These common elements had important effects on early Western education.
The followers of each of the three religions believed (1) that one God created and rules the universe; (2) that God permits no competition; (3) that God has revealed himself to people; (4) that from the sacred, written record of this revelation, people find their ultimate meaning and basic duty; and (5) that God’s chosen people have a sacred mission. Hebrews, Christians, and Muslims each developed educational systems in which the young were taught these beliefs. They were also taught that their particular religious group was spiritually superior to other groups.
Hebrews, Christians, and Muslims each developed a class of scholars who interpreted their group’s sacred writings and explored how those writings could be applied in different conditions, times, and places. Each group tended to view itself as a chosen people. As a result, the groups’ educational systems tended to emphasize a sharp line between “believers” and “nonbelievers.” Christians and Muslims felt an especially strong need to convert nonbelievers, usually through missionary work but sometimes through warfare. This missionary impulse led Christians to spread their educational system to many cultures.
Early Chinese and Indian education.
Christian missionaries worked to establish their educational systems in India and China. But the Indians and Chinese already had sacred books, written traditions, and formal schooling that they had used for centuries. Many Chinese and Indians felt that the Christian missionaries represented cultures that were spiritually and intellectually shallow.
Education in India was influenced by the religious traditions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam. Much education involved the passing of sacred knowledge from one generation to another. The most important Hindu sacred writings, called the Upanishads, appeared between 800 and 600 B.C. In China, the ideas of the philosopher Confucius were the strongest influence on education. These ideas, called Confucianism, emphasized the need to develop moral character and responsibility. The Confucians believed that people could perfect themselves through study. They made no sharp distinction between academic education and moral education.
Christian education in the Middle Ages.
The Christian church played an important part in shaping European formal education during the Middle Ages, which lasted from about the A.D. 400’s through the 1400’s. Before the collapse of the West Roman Empire in the 400’s, peoples in western and southern Europe had already begun to shift their loyalty from the Roman state to the Christian church. In fact, the basic issue of teachers and philosophers had now become “What does it mean to be a good Christian?” rather than “What does it mean to be a good Roman?”
Christian parents were expected to know the laws and beliefs of Christianity and to teach them to their children. Religious authorities controlled most formal education. But for many centuries, only those people who were being prepared for a religious vocation received such schooling. Some youngsters were educated by their local priests or in the bishop’s household. Others were taught in monastery or cathedral schools.
In the monastery and cathedral schools, students studied such subjects as church music, theology, and Latin, the official language of the Western Church. They also studied subjects similar to those studied in ancient Greece and Rome. These subjects were divided into two groups, which together were known as the seven liberal arts. The first group, called the trivium, consisted of grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The second group, called the quadrivium, consisted of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and harmonics.
Many young people who did not receive formal schooling became apprentices to skilled masters and learned a trade. Young men learned the arts and values of chivalry (the qualities of an ideal knight), which prepared them for military or government careers. Business people, craftworkers, merchants, and other groups formed professional societies called guilds. The guilds ranked among the leading educational institutions of the Middle Ages. They provided informal education in technical and social matters for guild members, as well as some formal education for members’ children.
The rise of the universities.
The first modern universities developed in Europe during the 1100’s. The universities did not originate as places or as groups of buildings. They began instead as collections of scholars organized into corporations with certain privileges and responsibilities. In fact, the word university comes from a Latin term for corporation or guild.
Most European universities were patterned after one of two models. The model for the majority of universities in the north was the University of Paris. The University of Paris developed in the 1100’s from a teacher’s guild at a cathedral school. The school taught several subjects and granted degrees. The universities that followed this model typically specialized in liberal arts and theology and were run by corporations of teachers. These universities received certain privileges from religious and governmental authorities. For instance, the universities could, within limits, try their own members for heresy—that is, for holding or teaching ideas that conflicted with those of the church.
Most southern European universities were modeled after the University of Bologna in Italy, which came into existence about 1100. These universities began as students’ guilds, and most of their students were mature and successful professional people. The guilds hired the professors and set the working conditions. Most southern European universities were nonreligious in origin and specialized in law or medicine.
By 1500, nearly 80 universities had been founded in Europe. Some survived only a short time, but others still exist. Those still in existence include Cambridge and Oxford universities in England; the universities of Montpellier, Paris, and Toulouse in France; Heidelberg in Germany; Bologna, Florence, Naples, Padua, Rome, and Siena in Italy; and Salamanca in Spain.
The Renaissance
was a period in European history when many people showed a renewed interest in the world and a growing spirit of individuality and independence. It began in Italy during the 1300’s and spread across Europe during the 1400’s and 1500’s.
During the Renaissance, classical humanist scholars stressed the human experience of the ancient Greeks and Romans, rather than the religious experience of the Middle Ages. The classical humanists were deeply interested in the Greek and Roman classics. Scholars of the Middle Ages had valued the writings of a few Greek and Roman authors because their logic and rhetoric could be used to support Christian teachings. The humanists, on the other hand, valued the Greek and Roman classics for what they said about civilized life as well as for their logic and rhetoric.
The humanists, like the ancient Athenians, believed that the main purpose of education was to train well-rounded, cultured citizens. They considered the ancient Greek gymnasium the ideal type of school. During the 1300’s and 1400’s, schools patterned after the Greek gymnasiums arose in many parts of Europe. They admitted mostly the sons of upper-class families, who studied Greek and Latin and the works of the ancient writers. Because there were few textbooks, students had to memorize texts read to them in class. They also learned how to behave like gentlemen and took part in body-building sports. In time, these schools developed into the European secondary school, which was designed for upper-class boys and offered a liberal arts program based on Greek and Latin sources. These schools had different names in different countries. They were called gymnasia in Germany, lycees and colleges in France, and grammar schools in England. Boys entered secondary school between the ages of 6 and 9. Until the 1800’s, secondary schools provided the only formal education for most upper-class European boys, except for those who attended the universities.
Children of the lower classes attended primary school, where they learned reading and writing in the vernacular (native language), arithmetic, history, literature, and geography. In Europe, the primary school was an alternative to the secondary school. Usually, primary school graduates could not enter a secondary school or a university. Primary schools began to appear in Europe in the 1500’s, but universal education did not begin in Europe until the 1800’s.
During the Renaissance, many classical humanists produced literary works in the vernacular as well as in Greek and Latin. In the 1300’s, for example, the great Italian poet Petrarch wrote more than 400 poems in Italian. Geoffrey Chaucer of England wrote his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, in English. Some scholars translated the Latin Bible into vernacular tongues.
The vernacular writings had only a small audience, however, because relatively few people could read. In addition, books were scarce and expensive because they had to be laboriously written by hand. Only a few people could arrange to borrow one or hire a scribe to copy it. Even university students had to memorize a book from hearing it read by the professor.
The invention of printing
as we know it became yet another milestone in the history of education. About 1440, a German metalworker named Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe. He also devised a special press to print from his movable type. Almost immediately, large numbers of low-cost books and pamphlets became available. As a result, thousands of people wanted to learn to read and write. In addition, the great quantity and variety of printed matter enabled people not only to learn without an instructor but also to acquire the knowledge to become teachers themselves. Moreover, printing spread knowledge faster than ever before. People could thus quickly learn about new theories, experiments, and discoveries.
The Reformation.
The invention of printing occurred at a time when the Roman Catholic Church was torn by conflict. This conflict led to the Reformation, the religious movement of the 1500’s that gave birth to Protestantism. In the 1300’s and 1400’s, certain reformers had begun to question some teachings of the church and to press for changes. One of their main beliefs was that all Christians should be able to read the Bible in their own language. But until the invention of printing, most Europeans knew little about the reformers’ arguments. By the 1500’s, pamphlets criticizing the church had become widespread throughout the Christian world. In addition, relatively inexpensive Bibles in vernacular translations became widely available. The argument that every Christian should learn to read the Bible thus became practical for the first time.
During the 1500’s, Protestant sections of Europe, including parts of Germany and Switzerland, established elementary schools to teach the children of common citizens to read the Bible in their native language. These vernacular schools also taught Christian morality and beliefs. Meanwhile, the Roman Catholic Church expanded its educational activities as part of the movement called the Counter Reformation. Several Catholic religious orders established vernacular schools for Catholic children. The number of secondary schools also expanded rapidly during the Reformation in both Protestant and Catholic regions of Europe.
The Enlightenment,
also called the Age of Reason, was a period of great intellectual activity that began in the 1600’s and lasted until the late 1700’s. During this period, scientists came to believe that, through reasoning and experimentation, they could discover the laws by which nature operates. This idea led to the development of the modern scientific method and created a scientific revolution.
To carry out experiments, scientists needed new tools. Inventors met these needs with such instruments as the microscope, sextant, and slide rule. Aided by the new instruments, scientists advanced rapidly. Discoveries by the English scientist Isaac Newton revolutionized astronomy. Robert Boyle of Ireland, Antoine Lavoisier of France, and Joseph Priestley of England founded modern chemistry. France’s René Descartes invented analytic geometry. The English physician William Harvey discovered how blood circulates in the human body.
The advance of science affected education. Science began to be taught in the schools, though it did not become a major subject of elementary and secondary education until the mid-1800’s. By the late 1700’s, however, the demand for an extensive scientific curriculum in universities had become overwhelming.
As knowledge of natural science expanded, such philosophers as Descartes and England’s Thomas Hobbes and John Locke began to urge the development of a social science. They suggested that human societies could be viewed as “universes” that were understandable through scientific investigations. These philosophers also believed that the reasons people behaved as they did could be understood through science.
The scientific revolution also affected education by changing the nature of technology. Technology refers to all the ways people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their needs and desires. A technology that is not based on science can be mastered through apprenticeship. But a technology based on science requires formal schooling. By assisting their parents, for example, children could learn to plow, sow, and reap in a traditional manner. But with the development of complicated farm machinery and scientific farming methods, agriculture came to depend on people trained in science.
By the late 1700’s, the technologies of textile manufacturing, transportation, and many other fields had become increasingly dependent on highly educated engineers and scientists. Trade and technical schools arose in many parts of Europe. In the United States, such leaders as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson called for the addition of “useful” subjects to the school curriculum. By “useful,” they meant science courses that could be applied to technology.
The rise of universal public schools.
By the late 1700’s, the nation, rather than the church, had become the chief symbol that united the people of several European countries, as well as the people of the United States. As people shifted their greater loyalty to their nation, the church’s control over formal schooling declined while the government’s control increased.
Modern nationalism—the idea that a person owes primary allegiance to the nation—first reached its fullest expression in France during and after the French Revolution (1789-1799). By 1833, the French government had taken control of all the nation’s schools. The Kingdom of Prussia, a German-speaking state, also developed a national school system in the early 1800’s. Through its schools, Prussia made nationalism the highest ideal of German-speaking peoples. When its king became the first emperor of a united Germany in 1871, many people believed the system of nationalistic schools had contributed to Prussia’s rise to power. As a result, other nations began to follow Prussia’s lead.
By the early 1900’s, public elementary education was free and compulsory in most European countries. Some countries also provided free secondary schooling. Vocational and technical education also made great strides in Europe during the 1900’s. Many nations added infant schools (nursery schools) to their systems in the mid-1900’s. Since that time, the ideal of free, compulsory education has taken root in almost every country. Most countries have adopted the plan of educational organization used in the West—that is, division into early childhood, elementary, secondary, and higher education.
Development of British education.
In the early 1800’s, the United Kingdom took steps toward a national system of education. The British educators Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster developed methods for providing elementary education cheaply by using pupils as teachers. In their systems, teachers taught older students, called monitors, who in turn taught younger students. Schools that used these systems were called monitorial schools. In 1833, Parliament voted to provide government money for schools. In 1839, the government claimed the right to inspect such schools.
In 1870, Parliament passed England’s Elementary Education Act. The act established local school boards and provided tax-funded elementary schools in areas where no schools existed. Parliament passed a similar act for Scotland in 1872. England, Wales, and Scotland made rapid progress in setting up national systems of education. The Parliament of Northern Ireland passed an Education Act in 1923.
During the 1920’s and 1930’s, several official reports influenced British primary and secondary education. They included The Education of the Adolescent (1926) and The Primary School (1931). The first report proposed that primary education should end at about age 11, after which all children should go on to secondary education. The second report recommended the more informal and active methods of teaching used in British primary schools today. The 1944 Education Act created a ministry of education and reorganized and expanded the British educational system.
For many years, the central government in London and local authorities worked in partnership to provide and control education. However, in the 1990’s, the responsibility for education shifted from the central government to regional government bodies. Today, separate government departments for England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland work closely with school authorities to administer the individual educational systems of the four divisions.
Development of Canadian education.
From the early 1600’s to the mid-1700’s, the Catholic Church controlled most formal education in Canada. Most colonists of this period were French Catholics who lived in the St. Lawrence River Valley. They set up French-language elementary schools where priests and members of religious orders were the main teachers. The Jesuits established a few classical secondary schools for boys. One of these, the Seminary of Quebec, was founded in 1663. It was named Université Laval (Laval University) in 1852.
In 1763, Britain (later the United Kingdom) gained control of all Canada. After that date, English settlers established many English-language schools. These included Protestant elementary and secondary schools for upper-class boys. After about 1800, the British tried to set up a common school system for French Catholics and English Protestants in Quebec. But Catholics opposed the effort. In 1846, a law established separate Protestant and Catholic school systems for Quebec. During the 1850’s and 1860’s, Ontario, which was largely Protestant, developed an educational system in which taxes supported both public and religious schools.
The British North America Act, passed in 1867, brought about the federation of the Canadian provinces. The act left education under provincial control. It also guaranteed public support for religious schools in the provinces—including Ontario and Quebec—that had provided such support before 1867. During the late 1800’s, elementary education became free and compulsory throughout Canada.
Development of U.S. education.
Most colonists who came to America set up schools like those they had known in Europe. Protestants and Roman Catholics established and supported their own schools. Most were elementary schools designed to teach reading, writing, and religion. School attendance was not compulsory in the American Colonies. Only about 1 child out of 10 went to school. Many children learned a trade by becoming apprentices. The children of wealthier colonists studied under tutors or were sent to private schools supported by tuition fees or to schools in England.
In 1642, the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the largest New England colony, passed a law requiring parents to teach their children to read. In 1647, Massachusetts passed the first law in America requiring communities to establish public schools. The law required every town with at least 50 families to start an elementary school, and every town of 100 families or more to have a Latin grammar school. Like other colonial schools, these town schools taught religion. But unlike other schools in the colonies, they were partially supported by public funds. The elementary schools were open to all children. The grammar schools were attended mainly by boys preparing for college. The Boston Latin School, which opened in 1635, was the first Latin grammar school—and the first secondary school of any kind—in the American Colonies. In 1636, Massachusetts founded Harvard College (now Harvard University), the first institution of higher learning in the colonies.
The 1700’s.
Secondary schools called academies arose in many of the colonies during the 1700’s. Academies offered more practical courses than did Latin grammar schools. A student could take such subjects as bookkeeping and navigation in addition to religion and liberal arts courses. Most academies were private schools supported by tuition fees. Some admitted girls, and some were established for girls only.
When the American Revolution ended in 1783, the United States had 18 institutions of higher learning. Some were partially state supported and controlled. In 1785, Georgia chartered the first state university, which opened in 1801. In 1795, North Carolina University (now the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) became the first state university to hold classes.
Unification through education.
After the Revolutionary War, many Americans were concerned with unifying their new nation. Attempts to promote unity had two important effects on education: (1) the development of standardized textbooks and (2) the building of state public school systems.
During the 1700’s and early 1800’s, a number of educators produced books designed specifically for Americans. Noah Webster’s famous “Blue-Backed Speller” helped standardize spelling and pronunciation in the United States. Millions of elementary school students used illustrated reading books published by William H. McGuffey. These “McGuffey Readers” taught patriotism and helped form literary tastes in the United States.
Early American educators also emphasized that good Americans were honest, hard-working, courageous, and deeply religious. In trying to develop an idealized view of Americans, early educators often described other people as lacking in these traits. This tendency was reflected in the textbooks, where people whose way of life differed from the American way were described unfavorably. For instance, authors sometimes described Spaniards as unusually cruel and lazy. Similarly, some authors wrote that the American Indians were savages who needed to be civilized.
During the 1800’s, increasing numbers of Americans looked to education to provide common goals and a sense of national unity. To achieve this goal, they proposed that each state set up a system of free, compulsory, tax-supported schools. They wanted the schools to be free of religious control but devoted to building character and teaching patriotism. The school systems were soon established throughout the country.
Certain religious groups, especially Roman Catholics and Lutherans, disliked some of the principles taught in public schools. As a result, they maintained and controlled alternate schools. In addition, some people, particularly the wealthy, disliked the fact that public schools tended to equalize everyone. They continued to send their children to private schools. But for generations, immigrants from many countries and of many religions found public schools an entry into the mainstream of American life.
Advances in public education.
In 1837, Massachusetts established a state board of education to coordinate its public school system. This board became a model for boards in other states. The first secretary of the Massachusetts board, the educator Horace Mann, did much to strengthen education in the state. Under his leadership, Massachusetts began the nation’s first public normal school (teacher-training school) in 1839. In 1852, the Massachusetts legislature passed the first compulsory school-attendance law in the United States. By the end of the 1800’s, 31 of the 45 states had school-attendance laws. By 1918, every state had one.
Boston opened the nation’s first public high school in 1821. Some people believed that the use of public funds to support secondary schools was illegal. However, in 1874, the Michigan Supreme Court ruled that local governments could use tax money to support secondary schools as well as elementary schools. Public high schools soon opened in other states.
Advances in higher education.
Churches and other private organizations founded several hundred small liberal arts colleges in the 1800’s. In 1833, Oberlin Collegiate Institute (now Oberlin College) in Ohio became the first coeducational college in the United States. In 1862, Congress passed the Morrill, or Land-Grant, Act, which gave vast areas of federal land to the states. The act required each state to sell the land and use the proceeds to start agricultural and technical colleges. In 1890, Congress passed the Second Morrill Act. This act withheld grants from states that denied admission to land-grant schools on the basis of race. A state could receive grants, however, if it provided separate schools for African Americans. As a result, many Southern States established black land-grant colleges and universities.
New theories of education.
The late 1800’s and early 1900’s brought far-reaching changes in U.S. education. Margaretha Schurz opened the nation’s first private kindergarten in 1856 in Watertown, Wisconsin. William T. Harris helped establish the nation’s first public kindergarten in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1873. The kindergartens used play and creative activities as teaching methods. Francis W. Parker, an Illinois educator, adopted these methods for use in elementary schools. Parker believed that a wider variety of teaching methods could better encourage the complete development of each child. In addition, Parker and other educators broadened elementary school courses by adding such subjects as geography, history, and science.
The new child-centered theories of education influenced many educators who felt that the schools had not kept up with changes in society. These educators proposed that teachers adopt such methods as field trips, group discussions, and creative activities to help prepare children for life in a democracy. John Dewey and William H. Kilpatrick were two of the principal supporters of such ideas, which became known as progressive education.
Joliet Junior College, the nation’s oldest junior college, opened in Joliet, Illinois, in 1901. About 1910, several U.S. cities began building junior high schools.
Increased government support.
Vocational education developed rapidly after Congress passed the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. The act granted the states federal funds for vocational education in the fields of agriculture, home economics (now called family and consumer sciences), and industrial arts. The federal government greatly increased its financial aid to education during the mid-1900’s. After World War II (1939-1945), Congress began granting federal funds to armed forces veterans to attend colleges and other schools.
School desegregation.
In 1954, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that racially segregated public schools were unconstitutional. The court based its decision on the constitutional guarantee of equal protection under the law. Seventeen states and some school districts in other states had school segregation laws in 1954. By the early 1960’s, a few states affected by the Supreme Court ruling had integrated their school districts. By 1970, every U.S. state had at least some integrated schools, though integration remained far from complete.
In the late 1900’s,
the U.S. educational system experienced a number of changes. Larger school enrollments after World War II created a need for more school buildings, and inflation increased the cost of constructing and operating schools. Teachers’ organizations became more aggressive as they bargained for improved benefits for their members. Partly as a result of these efforts, the average annual salary of U.S. schoolteachers increased by more than 70 percent during the 1960’s.
The federal government’s role in education continued to grow. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), passed by Congress in 1965, provided local school districts with funds to help educate children from low-income families. In 1981, the Educational Consolidation and Improvement Act updated and expanded ESEA services. Large sums of money for higher education were also provided by the National Defense Education Act of 1958, the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963, the Higher Education Act of 1965, and the Education Amendments Act of 1972.
In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, reformers began experimenting with a number of new educational models. In 1991, American business leaders established New American Schools, a nonprofit organization that helps public schools carry out reforms. Numerous school reform efforts, several of which were supported by New American Schools, produced dramatic improvements in student performance. Some of these reform programs were Accelerated Schools, Success for All, Roots and Wings, the Audrey Cohen College System of Education, and the Modern Red Schoolhouse.
By the beginning of the 2000’s,
public elementary and secondary schools in the United States enrolled more pupils than at any time in the nation’s history. School districts struggled to build enough schools to handle the high enrollment while keeping class sizes small. Some districts shifted to year-round school calendars where schools are open every month of the year. In year-round systems, students are enrolled in groups called tracks, and one track is on vacation at any given time. If the school uses three tracks, it can increase its student capacity by 50 percent.
In 2001, Congress passed a law that increased the role of the federal government in public education. The law, called the No Child Left Behind Act, introduced new requirements for student testing and measures for holding schools accountable for student progress.
In 2009, a set of uniform standards in English language arts and mathematics was developed for American schools. A group of state governors, the Council of Chief State School Officers, the U.S. Secretary of Education, and various nonprofit organizations worked together on the project. The purpose of the Common Core State Standards, as they are called, is to help all students become career- and college-ready by requiring more challenging work in those two key subject areas. Another goal was to make required knowledge and skills more consistent across the United States and its territories. By 2011, 45 states and the District of Columbia had voluntarily adopted the Common Core standards. However, opposition from parents and educators developed in some states. In 2014, several states began to drop the Common Core standards.
Education around the world
This section provides a general discussion of education throughout the world. See the individual country articles for discussions of education in each country.
Overview.
The various countries of the world manage their educational systems in different ways. Nevertheless, organization, control, and financial support for educational systems worldwide share many common features.
Organization
In many countries, early childhood education begins at schools similar to nursery schools and kindergartens. In other countries, elementary school is the earliest level of formal education. Elementary schools in every country teach children to read and write and to work with numbers. The pupils also learn their country’s customs and their duties as citizens. In most countries, the pupils also study such subjects as geography, history, and science.
In most nations, elementary education is compulsory and free. But countries vary in the amount of schooling they require and are able to provide. In many less developed countries, most children receive only an elementary education. In such countries, secondary and higher education are available only to outstanding students or to those who can afford to attend private schools. But in highly developed countries, young people are usually required to complete from 9 to 11 years of school, or sometimes more. The requirement typically includes 3 to 6 years of secondary school.
Many countries have junior secondary schools similar to the junior high schools and middle schools in the United States. In some school systems, students take an examination to determine what kind of secondary school they will attend. Some students are admitted to academic schools, and others attend vocational or specialized schools. In many European countries, secondary school students hold jobs and complete their education by taking part-time courses.
Throughout the world, students typically must complete their secondary education before they can be admitted to an institution of higher learning. They may also have to take a standardized test or an entrance examination. In many countries, the test results determine what kind of higher education a student will receive. The developed countries of Europe have many colleges and universities, and a wide variety of advanced technical and professional schools.
The educational system of almost every nation includes some form of schooling for students with disabilities. Most countries also provide for adult education at various levels. Many developing countries support schools that teach adults to read and write.
In many countries, especially in Europe, boarding schools are an important source of education. Boarding school students live at school instead of at home. Some educators believe that social values can be taught more effectively if students live at school. Israel has collective communities called kibbutzim, in which children spend most of their time together.
Control.
Most countries have both public and private schools. In these countries, the majority of elementary- and secondary-school children attend public schools. The Netherlands is one of the few nations in which more children are enrolled in private schools at all levels than in public schools.
In most nations, the central government has at least some control over the public school system. In France, the national government has complete control over the public schools. The French government’s ministry (department) of education decides all questions of educational policy and manages the public schools. In many other countries, including most European nations, the central government exercises control over certain aspects of the school system. These countries have ministries of education, which decide educational policy but transfer some responsibilities to local authorities.
Financial support.
In every nation, public funds are used to support education. Most countries that permit private schools also provide some financial support for such schools. In the Netherlands, public funds pay all the expenses of private schools. Other countries provide only partial support. Tuition fees and individual contributions pay the rest of the expenses of private schools.
Nations provide public funds for education in various ways. In some countries, the national government pays all public education costs. But in other countries, the national government shares the cost of education with other levels of government, such as states, provinces, or cities. In some of these countries, the national government supplies most of the funds. In others, the funds come mainly from lower levels of government.
Many countries obtain additional funds for public education from tuition fees, voluntary contributions, and other private sources. Some developing nations receive foreign aid for education.
A look at education in selected countries.
How a particular nation educates its children depends on many factors. Some of these include the length of time over which the educational system has developed, the amount of money a nation can spend on education, and the general level of literacy of its people. The educational systems of several nations are featured below.
Education in Australia.
Most of Australia’s universities are government funded. Students can earn a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctor’s degree, or a certificate. There are many English language centers in Australia. English language courses are also taught at universities and vocational institutions.
Education in Canada.
Canada, like the United States, does not have a national educational system. Instead, each province and territory organizes and regulates its own system of education. The national government controls schools for Indians, Inuit, and children of Canadian military personnel overseas.
Public education is free throughout Canada. Most private schools charge tuition fees. Children are required to attend school for 10 years in most provinces. Most communities offer education to students from kindergarten through 12th grade. Students who plan to seek employment after completing their required education can take a two-year vocational course during high school. Students who plan to continue their education take a four- or five-year general or vocational course.
Canada has many degree-granting institutions that belong to the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. Other institutions of higher learning include technical institutes and community colleges. Canadian community colleges combine the last one or two years of high school with the first one or two years of college.
Each Canadian province has a department of education headed by a minister of education. The department sets educational policies and standards for the entire province. But local authorities also have considerable control over their schools. Each province is divided into local school districts, each of which has a school board and a superintendent.
Canada’s provincial governments share the cost of education with local school districts. In six provinces—Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatchewan—public funds are used to support religious schools. The other provinces provide little or no aid for religious schools. In Quebec, most students are required to be taught in French through secondary school. Outside Quebec, the language of instruction is typically English.
Education in China.
China instituted a compulsory education law in 1986 that requires nine years of schooling, paid for by the government. Chinese children begin primary school at around age 6 or 7 and attend for five or six years. Then children attend middle school for three or four years. After middle school, children can attend high school, for a fee. Many children in rural areas end their formal education at age 15, or even earlier.
Chinese children attend school from about 7 a.m. until about 4 p.m. Many students take additional classes in the evenings or on weekends, however. Teaching as a profession is highly regarded in China, and teachers receive extensive training in their subject matter.
China’s institutions of higher learning include universities, medical schools and colleges, specialized institutions, and professional schools. In order to be admitted, students must pass the national college entrance exam, called the gaokao. The Chinese Ministry of Education assigns students to an appropriate college or university based on their test scores.
Education in India.
Although elementary education (ages 6 to 14) is considered a fundamental right in India, many children do not attend school. As a result, about 40 percent of adults in India are illiterate. There is also a gender gap, as more boys attend school than girls.
The school system in India is managed by the individual states, though the national government may make recommendations for schools. Education before college is divided into four levels: lower primary (ages 6 to 11), upper primary (ages 11 to 14), lower secondary (ages 14 to 16), and higher/upper secondary (ages 16 to 18). Many of the students who attend school learn to speak three languages, including English, Hindi, and their mother tongue (if different from Hindi).
Most schools are subsidized by the government, but many suffer from large class sizes and a lack of equipment. Wealthy families often send their children to expensive private schools. There are also a growing number of low-cost private schools, where children learn in smaller classes. There are wide gaps in funding between schools for the wealthy and those for the poor.
Education in New Zealand.
There are four levels of education in New Zealand: early childhood, primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Schooling is compulsory for children ages 6 to 16, at the government’s expense. Most children go to state schools, though others may attend private or boarding schools. Although early childhood education is not compulsory, the New Zealand government pays for up to 20 hours per week of schooling for all children ages 3 and 4. Primary education covers ages 5 to 12, and secondary education covers ages 12 to 18. There are some intermediate schools for children in their final primary school years (ages 11 to 12).
A national curriculum in New Zealand covers ages 5 to 15. All students must study English, the arts, health and physical education, languages, math and statistics, science, social science, and technology. Most of the schools are English-language schools.
Tertiary education includes universities and vocational schools. The government contributes most of the funds for the tertiary schools, and students contribute about a quarter of the costs. Students are assessed by a combination of grades and tests to determine their eligibility for university admission. Students who attend one of New Zealand’s eight public universities can earn bachelor’s, master’s, or doctor’s degrees. There are no private universities in New Zealand.
Education in Nigeria.
Nigeria’s school system also has three levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The system follows the Universal Basic Education model that requires six years in primary school beginning at age 6, three years in junior secondary school, and three years in senior secondary school. The first nine years of school are mandatory. Many children, however, do not attend school this length of time. Responsibility for schools and their funding is shared between the federal government and the states. There are also some private schools in Nigeria. English is the language of instruction.
There are dozens of universities in Nigeria, some of which are privately owned. There are also polytechnical colleges, which train people for technical jobs, as well as vocational schools.
Education in South Africa.
In the 1990’s, South Africa began its transition to democracy from an apartheid (separate) society for the country’s black and white citizens. With the 1996 South African Schools Act, schooling became compulsory from age 7 to 15, or the completion of grade 9, whichever occurs first. Students attend primary school and junior secondary school, from grade 0, or reception, to grade 9. After grade 9, students can receive a General Education and Training Certificate and pursue further schooling in a technical school or go to work. Students who want to earn a National Senior Certificate (NSC) must complete senior secondary school (grades 10 to 12) and take courses in English, a second South African language, math, and electives that may include such subjects as accounting, art, science, and social science. Only students who score high enough on the final exams are allowed to attend a university.
Because of the government’s past apartheid policies, generally the better public schools and private schools in South Africa are available only to wealthy students. Poor, mostly black students attend lower quality public schools. Many of the poor students do not earn a high school certificate and thus cannot attend a university. Others pass the state exam but do not score high enough to be admitted to a university. Such students may then attend a trade school, get a job, or start a business. South Africa has a number of state-funded and private institutions of higher education.
Education in South Korea.
Education is free and compulsory in South Korea for children ages 6 to 15. The Ministry of Education manages the schools. The education system is divided into three sections: primary school (six years), middle school (three years), and high school (three years).
The basic curriculum in primary school includes English, fine arts, Korean language, math, moral education, music, physical education, practical arts, science, and social studies. The middle school curriculum is similar but also includes electives and extracurricular activities. Most students attend an academic high school (grades 10 through 12). Others attend a vocational high school or a specialty high school that focuses on such areas as science, arts, or foreign language.
South Korean schools are highly competitive, and their students rank high worldwide in reading and mathematics. Many students attend hagwons (after-school study centers), for additional hours of instruction.
A great majority of South Korean high school students advance to higher education. Getting into the top universities is very competitive. Many students major in such technical subjects as engineering. South Korea has several hundred institutions of higher learning, and most of them are private or nongovernment schools. Students can earn a bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degree.
Education in Sweden.
Public education is free in Sweden from primary school through university. Sweden spends more money on public education than most other countries. Schooling in Sweden is compulsory for all children ages 7 to 16. Most children also attend preschool at age 6. Students attend elementary school for years 1 to 3, middle school for years 4 to 6, and secondary school (junior high school) for years 7 to 9.
After secondary school, students may attend upper secondary school (high school or gymnasium) for three years free of charge. However, they must first pass Swedish and English language and math tests, as well as tests in five to nine other subjects. There are 18 national programs that provide a broad general education and help prepare students for the university. A decline in Swedish student performance led to reforms in the early 2000’s that included curriculum changes, a new grading system, and a new teacher certification requirement.
The Swedish school system includes both municipal schools and independent schools run by private providers. Parents may choose the schools their children will attend. About 10 percent of compulsory school children attend independent schools. In 2006, Sweden passed the Swedish Discrimination Act, which helps to protect children from discrimination and such degrading treatment as bullying. Children also have access to a school doctor or nurse, psychologist, and welfare officer.
At the university level, students may earn a bachelor’s degree, a master’s or professional (education, engineering, health care, law) degree, a special license, or a doctor’s degree.
Education in the United Kingdom.
The four divisions that make up the United Kingdom—England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales—have separate educational systems. Each system is run by its own government department, which works closely with local school authorities.
Children in the United Kingdom are required by law to begin school at age 5, except for children in Northern Ireland, who must begin school at age 4. Children are required to continue in school until they are 16. Generally, students attend primary (elementary) school until they are 11 or 12 years old. They then attend secondary (high) school. There are several types of high schools in the United Kingdom. Some high schools provide a college preparatory education. Others stress a more technical or vocational education. However, most students attend comprehensive schools, which provide all types of high school education.
The majority of British schoolchildren attend free primary schools and high schools that are supported by public funds. The rest go to private institutions called independent schools that are supported by fees paid by parents and by private gifts of money. There are several types of independent schools. The best known are the English public schools, which provide high school education. Although these schools are actually private institutions, they are called public schools because the earliest of these schools were established for the children of the middle class. Some of these schools—such as Eton, Harrow, and Winchester—traditionally have trained students for the practice of law and for high-ranking positions in the government, the Church of England, and the British armed forces.
Institutions of higher education in the United Kingdom include two of the oldest and most famous universities in the world: the University of Oxford, founded in the 1100’s, and the University of Cambridge, probably established in 1209. The University of London is the United Kingdom’s largest traditional university. The Open University has more students, but it has no regular classrooms. Instead, the Open University provides instruction by radio, television, correspondence, the Internet, and other methods. Other universities in the United Kingdom include the University of Wales and the University of Glamorgan, in Wales; the universities at Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews, in Scotland; and Queen’s University Belfast and the University of Ulster, in Northern Ireland.
Although they are mainly supported by public funds, universities in the United Kingdom are not part of the government-run system of education. They are independent, self-governing bodies. The universities themselves decide what subjects they teach, what degrees they award, and what staff they appoint. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) reviews the standards of the schools.
Current issues in education
Educators, policymakers, and parents throughout the world debate issues relating to education. Major issues include what should be taught, how student performance can be improved, who should choose a child’s school, who should teach, who should be educated, and how schools should be organized and financed.
What should be taught?
Through the years, the chief purposes of education have included acquisition of knowledge, intellectual discipline, preparation for citizenship, individual development, vocational training, and character education. Most educators believe education should serve all these purposes. But some experts feel education should serve some purposes more than others. These people often favor either curriculum-based education or needs-based education.
Curriculum-based education
emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge and skills. It focuses on the study of such subjects as language, science, and mathematics. Its supporters believe it provides all students with the knowledge they need to function in society. Many countries have national curriculums that provide standard guidelines for learning in all public schools. Such curriculums seek to unite the country’s people through a common body of knowledge. They seek to promote cultural literacy—that is, knowledge of the basic information an individual needs to succeed in modern society. Standard curriculums also help students who transfer from one school to another.
In the United States, curriculum-based education gained widespread support during the late 1950’s, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite. Many U.S. citizens became fearful that the Soviets had surpassed the United States in science and technology. In response to these concerns, many schools adopted a more rigorous curriculum that emphasized mathematics and the physical sciences. In 1983, a federal group known as the National Commission on Excellence in Education recommended a core curriculum for high school students. The curriculum included courses in English, mathematics, science, social studies, and computer science. Although such a curriculum was not adopted at the time, by 2011, many U.S. states and the District of Columbia had voluntarily adopted common standards in English and math.
Needs-based education
stresses the total development of the individual. Students are encouraged to express their feelings and ideas and to study subjects that interest them. Needs-based education is intended to help children develop emotionally, physically, and socially, as well as intellectually. It became popular during the 1960’s, when educators began to focus on the special educational needs of minority students, students with disabilities, and others.
Supporters of needs-based education have started hundreds of schools outside the established school systems. In the United States and other countries, some individuals and groups introduced nontraditional schools, sometimes called alternative schools or free schools.
How can student performance be improved?
Over the years, educators have tried to create a system that both supports individual development and teaches the knowledge and skills required by society. However, studies have shown that many students lack a basic understanding of language, science, mathematics, geography, history, and other subjects.
Educators have explored numerous methods for measuring and improving student performance. Such methods include standardized testing programs, literacy programs, and accountability testing. Many parents and educators have called for additional measures, such as longer school hours, more homework, increased teacher salaries, and stricter discipline in the classroom.
Standardized testing programs.
Many countries have national standardized testing programs that seek to measure the performance of students. Standardized testing can identify what information students know, what information students have difficulty learning, and which students experience the greatest difficulty. The findings of such programs can help educators recognize and address shortcomings in the school system. In the United States, for example, a federally funded program called the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has collected information about the skill and knowledge levels of U.S. students since 1969.
Despite the widespread use of standardized tests, many educators criticize the programs. Some critics argue that the tests are unfair to students from lower social and economic groups or different cultural backgrounds. Such students may be unfamiliar with words, terms, and concepts used in the tests. To give these students an equal chance, many educators have tried to prepare culture-fair or culture-free tests. Such tests might consist of pictures, symbols, and nonsense syllables that are equally unfamiliar to everyone. Some critics also argue that testing programs do not measure true understanding of information and fail to encourage educational progress. Nevertheless, most educators believe that testing is a useful and necessary tool in education.
Literacy programs.
Experts throughout the world have identified illiteracy as one of the greatest problems facing education. Even many developed countries—including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States—have large numbers of adults who are functionally illiterate—that is, unable to read and write well enough to meet the demands of society. Many countries have implemented literacy programs that rely on volunteer teachers. In the 1960’s, for instance, China’s government recruited about 30 million volunteer teachers with the slogan “You Who Can Read, Teach an Illiterate.”
During the 1980’s, many schools began to experiment with different teaching methods and increased free time for reading in an effort to stimulate young students’ in terest in reading. Some schools established adult reading centers to teach illiterate parents how to read and how to help their children develop good reading skills.
Accountability testing.
Many schools have experimented with more aggressive efforts to improve education. One of the most popular means of upgrading education is the use of accountability systems. Under an accountability system, teachers and schools are held responsible for students’ progress. In the United States and other countries, governments have launched comprehensive testing programs to track the performance of students throughout their school careers. The programs help identify schools that consistently produce poor test scores. Once identified, failing schools receive intense scrutiny and help. If a school continues to perform poorly, it may be reorganized or closed.
In the United States, the federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 established annual state tests for children in grades 3 through 8. The law also included measures for identifying low-performing schools and for assisting students in those schools. Under the law, if a school consistently performs poorly, its students may receive funds for tutoring or for transportation to other public schools.
People who favor accountability systems believe such systems promote the effective teaching of basic skills. Many educators claim, however, that these systems fail to promote analytical or creative thinking.
Who should choose a child’s school?
In many countries, including the United States, children have traditionally attended schools assigned to them through a government system. However, growing numbers of people believe that all parents should be able to choose their child’s school. Many parents prefer to send their children to private schools or to public schools that offer special programs. Other parents choose to educate their children at home.
Children who are educated at home usually receive most of their instruction from a parent. In the United States, by the early 2000’s, about 3 percent of all school-aged children were homeschooled. Most received education at home, but some attended school part of the time. Parents may choose to homeschool on religious or moral grounds. Others do so because they disapprove of some aspect of the public school system. 
Homeschool families may use educational materials developed by organizations or businesses. Children are typically given lessons in subjects similar to those in public and private schools. However, in most states they are exempted from testing and teacher qualifications requirements. Homeschooling can include online education, homeschool cooperatives, tutors, internships, volunteer opportunities, hobbies, home business, and outdoor activities in an effort to provide a well-rounded education. All 50 U.S. states allow homeschooling in some form.
Some school systems have established magnet schools as a way of enabling families to send their children to specific schools beyond their normal school boundaries. These schools are called magnets because they are designed to attract students from many different social and cultural groups. A magnet school is a public school that offers special training in a particular field, such as engineering or the visual and performing arts. Students generally must apply for admission.
In magnet schools, parents work closely with educators and may help establish the schools’ curriculum, admission requirements, performance standards, and other policies. As a result, a magnet school’s curriculum tends to reflect the educational priorities of the community it serves. For example, in many parts of the United States, magnet schools specializing in bilingual education serve Hispanic American students.
Other forms of school choice include open enrollment and voucher systems. Open enrollment allows parents to send their children to a public school in or outside their local district, provided that their choice does not interfere with desegregation plans. In the United States, some states allow open enrollment on a statewide basis. Other states offer open enrollment within districts.
Under voucher systems, a government provides families with vouchers (coupons) worth a fixed amount of money to be spent on education for each child. Families may then use the vouchers at a public school of their choice. In some instances, families may also be able to use the vouchers at private schools.
Voucher systems have been the subject of much debate. Supporters of vouchers claim that having options enables parents to send their children to better schools. They also argue that voucher systems increase competition among schools, which leads to improved instruction. Opponents of voucher systems argue that the plans unfairly benefit wealthy families that have the resources to learn about school options and to send their children greater distances. They also argue that voucher programs may weaken public education and increase segregation. In addition, many people feel that public funds should not be used to fund education offered by religious groups, which operate many private schools.
Because of the disagreements surrounding voucher systems, their use in the United States has been limited. Some cities, including Milwaukee and Cleveland, and some states, including Florida and Indiana, have issued publicly funded vouchers for low-income children to attend private schools. Some private foundations have also provided vouchers for poor children in large U.S. cities. In 2004, the U.S. Congress passed a law to create a federally funded voucher system for students in Washington, D.C. The law allows the vouchers to be used at private schools. Several states, including Arizona and Georgia, use voucher systems that allow children with disabilities to attend private schools at state expense.
Who should teach?
Some people have argued that poor student performance is largely the result of ineffective teaching. These claims were supported by studies that found that some teachers lack basic knowledge of the subjects they teach. The studies led to an intense review of the teacher-training programs at many universities and colleges. In many cases, these programs did not require people who majored in education to master the subject that they wished to teach. To improve their teacher-training programs, some universities and colleges raised the standards for admission to the programs. Many also began requiring students to select a major other than education.
Many teachers and educators have argued that poor student performance is not necessarily the result of poor teaching. Many teachers feel that they have little control over how their schools are operated or over what textbooks and teaching methods are used in their classrooms. In addition, many teachers feel that they are overloaded with other responsibilities at their schools besides teaching.
Various plans have been suggested for improving teacher performance. These plans include in-service training, master-teacher programs, merit-pay programs, and national certification. In-service training helps working teachers improve their performance. In master-teacher programs, successful, experienced teachers work closely with beginning teachers to provide support and advice. Merit-pay programs reward teachers with additional pay if their students regularly achieve at high levels. National certification is a movement to improve teaching by creating high standards of training and performance for teachers throughout a country. Many governments have standards that people must meet before they can work as teachers. These standards may involve passing a test or achieving a certain level of education.
School systems in many countries have difficulty finding a sufficient number of qualified teachers. In some cases, teacher shortages have forced school systems to relax their standards so that people from other fields could become teachers. In addition, many school systems have had to raise salaries to make teaching a more attractive career choice.
Education for whom?
During the mid-1900’s, several groups began to win educational opportunities that had previously been denied to them. Such groups included minority groups, people with disabilities, and women.
Desegregation and busing.
Racial segregation in public schools became illegal in the United States following the Supreme Court’s 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The court renewed its support for integration in 1971, when it ruled in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education that students could be bused to different schools to achieve desegregation. Many school districts then adopted extensive busing programs to promote integration. Despite these efforts, studies continued to show that most minority students still attended schools with predominantly minority enrollment. This failure to achieve racial balance led to growing opposition to busing among both white and minority families.
In the 1990’s, several Supreme Court decisions limited schools’ obligation to use busing plans and other measures to encourage desegregation. School districts then phased out most such plans. Today, many African American students still attend segregated schools.
Other countries have experienced segregation in their educational systems. In South Africa, for instance, most students attended racially separate public schools until 1991. Since then, many black children have begun to attend previously all-white public schools.
Bilingual education.
Students may face a disadvantage in school if their native language is different from the majority language. To address this concern, many school systems offer bilingual education—that is, instruction in two languages. Countries with large immigrant populations rely on bilingual programs to help provide full educational opportunities for all students. However, some people oppose bilingual education be cause they feel it threatens national identity.
In the United States, bilingual education is especially important in areas with large Asian and Hispanic populations. The U.S. government first provided funds for bilingual education in public schools in 1968. In 1974, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lau v. Nichols that schools must provide special programs for students who have limited proficiency in English.
Canadian school systems have used bilingual education to help students become fluent in both French and English. Although English is Canada’s majority language, both English and French are officially recognized. As a result, many parents want their children to learn both languages.
Multicultural education
is emphasized in countries where the population consists of groups from different ethnic or cultural backgrounds. It encourages students to appreciate cultural diversity and to develop positive images of themselves and of people from other cultures. It seeks to reduce social conflict and ethnic or racial tension.
In the early 1900’s, the United States and its schools functioned as a “melting pot.” That is, schools brought together people from many cultural backgrounds and taught them to think of themselves primarily as Americans. During the 1960’s, however, the civil rights movement drew attention to particular groups in the nation’s schools and communities. In the following years, educators developed a broader curriculum designed to help individuals from all backgrounds value their ethnic heritage. The program later expanded to examine the distinct histories, contributions, and aspirations of various cultural groups. See Multiculturalism.
Education for children with disabilities.
For many years, children with disabilities lacked many of the basic educational opportunities that were afforded to other students. But since the late 1900’s, civil rights laws in various countries have improved the access to public education for people with disabilities. In the United States, for example, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 orders that people with disabilities must have equal opportunities to benefit from all government-run programs, services, and activities, including public schools. In the United Kingdom, the Education Act of 1996 requires school systems to provide appropriate arrangements for children with special needs. Despite these advances, however, community attitudes and poor facilities can still lead to inadequate education for people with disabilities.
People often disagree over where the education of students with disabilities should take place. Many parents, people with disabilities, and advocates believe that students with disabilities should be included in regular classes, with any necessary services and aides provided there. Others believe that appropriate education for students with disabilities can best be provided in separate special education classes.
Nonsexist education.
Since the 1800’s, women’s movements have challenged long-standing ideas about the proper roles and educational needs of women. As a result, girls and women have won a wide range of new educational opportunities.
In the United States, Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex by universities and other schools receiving federal funds. In 1975, the government issued detailed regulations outlawing such discrimination in admissions, ath letics, course offerings, hiring, and other school activities. As a result, home economics, shop, and other classes became coeducational. Schools also began to admit girls to boys’ sports teams or to provide separate girls’ teams.
Since the late 1900’s, the number of women enrolled in colleges and universities has increased dramatically. The number of women serving on school faculties has also increased. In addition, many high schools and colleges now offer women’s studies courses. Such courses examine issues affecting women, women’s history, and the contributions of women in various fields.
How should schools be run?
Many proposals for improving education involve sweeping changes in how schools are organized and operated. Such changes are often called school restructuring or school reform. Restructuring generally seeks a more flexible approach to schooling that encourages new ideas and creativity. It usually transfers decision-making authority from central-office administrators to principals and teachers.
Restructuring is difficult to put into practice. Many school systems, however, have adopted a procedure called school-site management or school-based management. In this procedure, a team that typically consists of community leaders, parents, and teachers may help set school policies, select textbooks, manage the school budget, and participate in hiring teachers. Thus, decision making occurs at the local school level, close to the students who are served by the school.
Some people believe that public school systems should be privatized—that is, managed by private organizations rather than by the government. In the United States, a private organization called EdisonLearning, Inc. manages some public schools under contracts with local districts and charter school authorities. EdisonLearning’s popularity has stirred debate about what role—if any—nonpublic organizations should play in running schools funded with tax dollars. Supporters claim that private organizations can provide superior instruction for about the same amount of money. Opponents, however, argue that public education should not be entrusted to private organizations seeking to make a profit.
How should education be financed?
Many people disagree over how education should be financed. In most countries, the national government shares the cost of education with other levels of government, such as states, provinces, or cities.
Schools in the United States have traditionally received money through property taxes. But many critics argue that the property tax is an unfair method of financing public education. Poor school districts raise far less money from property taxes than rich districts do because the total property value in poor districts is much lower. As a result, critics argue, rich districts can provide better schools and programs than poor districts.
In 1973, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that using property taxes to finance public schools did not violate the Constitution. However, the court acknowledged the need for reform in school financing. Since the 1970’s, many U.S. states have sought to reduce the dependence on property taxes. In 1994, Michigan sharply reduced the use of property taxes in financing its public schools. Other states—including California and Oregon—have limited the use of property taxes and in creased their reliance on other sources of funding. However, other sources—such as income taxes and sales taxes—may be less stable than property taxes because they can be greatly affected by changes in economic conditions.
