Farm and farming. Farming is the use of land and other resources to raise crops and livestock. The lands and facilities in which crops and livestock are raised are called farms.
The practice of farming began long before written history. The ability to manage farmland played a role in the rise and fall of ancient civilizations. And for most of history, farming was by far the world’s primary occupation. As recently as 1700, more than 90 percent of the world’s people worked as farmers. Even so, farms covered only 7 percent of Earth’s land.
By the 2020’s, farms had spread dramatically to cover about 40 percent of Earth’s land. But through the use of modern technology, far fewer people were required to operate them. Today, about a fourth of the world’s people are farmers. In some less developed countries, over half of the people still work as farmers. In developed countries, farmers may represent as little as 2 percent of the population, despite vast areas of farmland.
Farms differ greatly from place to place. Some farms are small plots of cleared forestland that supply only enough food for the farmer’s family. Other farms are huge fields of crops that are harvested by machines and sold on global markets. Some farms grow or raise mostly one crop or animal. Others produce a variety of crops and livestock. Some farms rely on rain to water the crops, and other farms water crops through the use of irrigation systems. An increasing number of farmers grow crops in cities rather than in the countryside.
Wherever and however they are raised, crops need water and soil. Crops also need protection from such pests as insect and weeds. Farming crops involves several steps. The soil must be prepared. Seeds are then planted. Farmers must protect the crops as they grow. Finally, they must harvest crops and process them for use or storage.
Livestock farmers must supply their animals’ basic needs. Animals must be given adequate shelter, food, and water, and protection from disease. Some animals, such as cattle and sheep, are raised for part of their lives on open pastures. Others, such as chickens and hogs, may be raised their entire lives in buildings, where machines feed them and dispose of their waste.
As an occupation, farming presents many challenges and risks. Farmers generally receive income only after their crops are harvested and sold. Changes in the weather and the markets can thus greatly affect their livelihood. In developed countries, government programs may help to provide a safety net for farmers. In less developed countries, many farmers are extremely poor. They may have little access to government assistance programs or advanced farming technology.
This article describes the many kinds of farms that exist around the world today. It discusses techniques for growing crops and raising livestock. It also discusses the business of farming, the challenges that farmers face, and the resources available to them. For information on the history of farming and its relation to human society and the environment, see Agriculture. See Food supply for more information about how farms feed the world’s people. The Gardening and Horticulture articles cover the growing of plants on a smaller scale.
Kinds of farms
Farms vary widely in terms of size, use of technology, and kinds of crops and livestock produced. These characteristics and others can be used to classify farms into different types.
Farm size
varies considerably around the world. In the early 2020’s, the average farm size was about 465 acres (190 hectares) in the United States and 40 acres (16 hectares) in Europe. In Asia and Africa, typical farms are small farms, generally defined as being less than 5 acres (2 hectares) in size.
Asia and Africa are home to the vast majority of the world’s small farmers. In the poorest Asian and African nations, farming may constitute a quarter or more of the Gross domestic product (GDP), the total economic value of a country’s goods and services. In these countries, small farmers are often extremely poor, despite their contribution to GDP. Many of them suffer from hunger and malnutrition.
One method used by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) classifies farm size in terms of sales. According to this USDA assessment, small farms are those that sell between $1,000 and $250,000 worth of produce per year. About 90 percent of U.S. farms meet this description. However, most U.S. farm produce—and profit—comes from large farms. Many U.S. small farmers rely on nonfarm-based sources to supplement their income. The distribution of farm size and profit follows a similar pattern in many other developed countries.
Commercialization.
A farm’s degree of commercialization—that is, the extent to which it sells its produce on the market—serves as another means of classification. In less developed countries, many small farmers practice subsistence farming. In this system, the farm basically produces just enough food to feed the farmer’s family. Other small farmers are semisubsistence farmers, growing small amounts of extra food for sale to others. In contrast, farms in developed countries are almost always commercial enterprises, regardless of size. On such farms, all crops and livestock are grown for sale.
Subsistence farms.
Subsistence farming has been the main form of farming for most of human history. One form of subsistence farming is called shifting agriculture or slash-and-burn agriculture. This method involves cutting down and burning small areas of forest to use as farmland. The burned material fertilizes the soil. After a few years of farming, the soil becomes exhausted of nutrients (nourishing substances), so the farmers move to a new area and begin the process again. Given enough time, the soil may recover its fertility to be used again.
In many subsistence farming systems, men and women share some of the work, while other responsibilities are divided by gender and age. For example, in the farms of sub-Saharan Africa—the part of Africa south of the Sahara—men are usually responsible for clearing the land and preparing the soil. Women typically provide fuel and water for the farm, manage weeds, and process crops during and after harvest. Despite their many contributions to managing daily farm work, women rarely have control over farm resources and income. Male farmers enjoy better access to land, credit, farming necessities, and educational opportunities.
Despite a relative lack of technological and economic sophistication, subsistence and semisubsistence farms can be complex and resilient. Such farms may grow a wide diversity of crops. Thus, if one crop fails, the farmers will still have enough food. Crop diversity can also help maintain water and nutrient balance in the soil and enable farmers to harvest food and eat a balanced diet during all seasons.
Population growth and the reduction of available land have made subsistence and semisubsistence farming more difficult in many areas. Land cleared and farmed in shifting agriculture is often not given enough time to regenerate. As a result, the soil may become permanently damaged—and additional land might have to be cleared to grow enough food. Many small subsistence and semisubsistence farmers are moving from farming a variety of crops to growing monocultures—that is, large areas of a single crop—and selling crops for cash.
Commercial farms.
In industrialized countries, farming has shifted from a prominent way of life to an important business. The term agribusiness describes all business activities involved in food production, including food processing, food distribution, and the development of resources and equipment used on farms. Agribusiness is a huge industry that ultimately depends on farms. But farmers form a small percentage of the people employed in agribusiness. Other agribusiness professionals include agricultural scientists, manufacturers, and marketers.
Like other businesses, farms must be profitable and sustainable in the long term. Successful farmers are experts not only in agriculture but also in accounting, marketing, and financing. Farmers earn their income primarily from what they sell. They also must protect their resources to ensure the farm will remain profitable in future years. Many farmers receive some money from government farm programs intended to reduce the risks involved in farming.
In the United States, about 85 percent of farms are owned by individuals or families. Most of the time, the owners also operate the farm. But sometimes, they rent all or some of the land in an arrangement called tenant farming. About 7 percent of U.S. farms are partnerships of two or more owners. Farms owned by corporations also make up about 7 percent of U.S. farms. Such corporate farms receive certain tax benefits that individual or partnership farms do not. Family-owned farms are not necessarily small farms. Likewise, not all corporate farms are giant operations owned by multinational corporations. In fact, most corporate farms are run by families.
Farms in Canada are generally similar to those in the United States. European farms are typically smaller and raise higher-value products than most farms of North America, but their business practices are similar. In other countries, farms may be organized differently. In China, for example, farms are owned by local organizations called collectives and leased to family farmers. The farmers must supply a given amount of food to the Chinese government, but they can keep and sell any additional produce.
Farm specialization.
Another classification, often used in the United States, divides farms into two main groups: (1) specialized farms and (2) mixed farms. A specialized farm primarily produces one particular type of crop or livestock. A mixed farm raises a variety of crops and livestock.
Specialized farms often grow monocultures on huge fields. These monoculture crops tend to be those best suited for the farm’s region. For example, corn is often the most profitable crop to grow in regions that have level land, fertile soil, and a warm, moist growing season. Wheat grows best in a drier and somewhat cooler climate. Dairy farming is often the most profitable kind of farming in regions with rolling land, rich pastures, and a short growing season. For such monoculture crops as bananas, sugar cane, and tobacco, the farms are sometimes called plantations. In Central America, South America, and Africa, many plantations raise specialized crops for export. Such plantations are often supported by foreign investment.
Though specialized farms typically rely on one particular crop or livestock species, many of them have additional products. Some specialized crop farms, for example, also raise livestock. They may use their livestock’s manure as fertilizer. The difference between a specialized farm and a mixed farm is a matter of degree. In the United States, for example, a farm is considered a specialized farm if it earns more than half its income from the sale of one kind of crop or livestock.
Farm inputs and technologies.
Farms vary in their technological sophistication and in their use of fertilizers, pesticides, livestock medicines, and other inputs. Many subsistence farmers are low-input farmers. They rely on simple technology that has been in use for thousands of years, and they mainly use resources that come from the farm itself. Commercial farms in developed countries, by contrast, often rely on such technological advances as engine-powered machinery, computer systems, and genetic engineering. Such technologies may be too expensive for poor farmers to afford. Other farms in developed countries deliberately do not use certain types of controversial technologies and inputs.
Industrialized agriculture,
sometimes called conventional agriculture, relies on technologies first developed during the 1800’s. Powered machines do much of the physical labor on such farms, greatly reducing labor costs. Industrialized agriculture relies on synthetic fertilizers—mostly mixtures nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium—to enrich the soil. Such farms also use a variety of pesticides. Insecticides are pesticides that kill insect pests that eat or damage crops. Fungicides kill harmful fungi. Herbicides kill weeds that compete with crops for resources.
In industrialized agriculture, livestock producers also make use of synthetic chemicals, most of which are added to animal feed. Antibiotics protect animals against disease and infection. Other chemicals, called hormones, speed up animals’ growth and their rate of milk or egg production. Such livestock as chickens and hogs can be raised entirely in buildings with automated feeding and controlled temperatures.
The widespread use of industrialized farming techniques has greatly increased the food supply around the world. It has also decreased the number of people needed to manage farms. Industrialized farms are highly productive. But industrialized farming relies on large inputs of energy and synthetic chemicals. Many of these inputs are derived from fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which exist in limited and dwindling supplies. In addition, chemical runoff and waste products from industrialized farms can cause environmental damage and health problems.
Breeding and genetic engineering.
Before humans could farm, they had to change wild plants and animals to make them suitable for agriculture. For example, early humans selected and planted seeds from the largest, tastiest plants. Thus, those plants survived and reproduced more often, passing their traits on to their offspring. This process, called selective breeding, is still used in agriculture today.
Later, farmers developed the practice of selectively cross-pollinating plants of the same species. This process involves causing one specific plant to pollinate another, producing offspring that combine desirable features from each parent. During the 1960’s, this technique led to the development of extremely productive varieties of rice, wheat, and corn. The use of these crop varieties, along with industrialized farming techniques, greatly increased agricultural production around the world in what became known as the Green Revolution.
Genetic engineering, in contrast to older breeding techniques, involves altering the patterns of a living thing’s genes (hereditary material) directly. Plants and animals altered by genetic engineering are called genetically modified organisms (GMO’s). GMO’s can be developed with a number of desirable traits, such as longer shelf life or higher nutritional content. Some GMO’s are developed for resistance to insects, fungi, and other pests, reducing the need for chemical pesticides. GMO’s may require less water or have a higher tolerance for bad soil, and so can be planted in areas that would otherwise be difficult to farm.
The use of GMO’s remains controversial. Some GMO critics focus on the unknown health and environmental consequences of the new organisms. Other critics charge that GMO’s are not sufficiently regulated, citing the potential for abuse by powerful, profit-driven GMO developers. In Canada and the United States, many crops grown on industrialized farms and sold in grocery stores are GMO’s. The law in these countries requires no special labeling of GMO products. The use of GMO’s is much more limited in countries with stricter regulation and labeling requirements, including Australia, China, India, most of Europe, and parts of Africa.
Organic farming
involves restricting the use of a number of controversial inputs and technologies, including synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Organically raised livestock are not given hormones, antibiotics, or other synthetic food additives. In addition, organic farmers do not use GMO’s.
Organic producers use a variety of techniques to maximize the efficiency of their operations. Some apply compost (decayed plant and animal matter) to the soil instead of synthetic fertilizers. Organic farmers may rely on natural predators instead of pesticides to control pest populations.
In the United States, farms must be certified by the USDA in order to label their produce “organic.” Other countries have their own organic certification processes. The certification process can be lengthy and expensive. But demand is high for organic products, enabling farmers to sell them at premium prices. Farmers in less developed countries often can not afford such inputs as fertilizers, pesticides, or GMO’s, and thus use organic farming methods by necessity.
Other specialized technologies
include (1) hydroponics and (2) greenhouse. Hydroponic farming involves growing crops in canals or large tanks filled either with water or with sand, gravel, or other materials covered with water. The nutrients that the plant needs are added to the water. The water usually circulates to assure that the roots get air. Greenhouses are structures of plastic, glass, or other translucent materials that help protect the plants inside from extreme temperatures, wind, and pests. Hydroponics and greenhouses enable farmers to grow certain crops throughout the year, regardless of outside conditions.
Farm location.
Farms can be classified based on the unique features of their surrounding land, soil, and climate. A farm’s location determines which methods must be used to grow crops. It also may limit which crops can be grown on the farm.
Access to water
greatly limits where farms can develop. Rainfed farms rely on natural rainfall for their water supply. In some cases, farms in rainy areas may suffer from too much water. Farmers may use drainage systems to ensure crops are not at risk from drowning.
Irrigated farms, by contrast, rely on water from distant sources, such as rivers or reservoirs. Farmers have long relied on irrigation systems. Ancient civilizations built canals and aqueducts to transport water to farmland. Wells and cisterns were created to store water for farms during dry seasons. Irrigation systems enable widespread farming in dry regions, such as the western United States and many places in the Middle East.
Urban farming.
In 1800, only a small percentage of people lived in cities. The vast majority of people lived where they worked—on rural farms. By 2010, about half of the world’s people lived in cities. Though most farms today are still in rural areas, an increasing number of city dwellers grow plants in urban environments.
Examples of urban farming include community and school gardens and “green roof” farms on top of buildings. In less developed countries, where many city dwellers suffer from extreme poverty and lack of access to markets, urban farms can save families from starvation. In parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, more than 50 percent of urban households practice urban farming. However, some places restrict or even outlaw urban farming. Concerns over food safety and threats to human health from livestock diseases and wastes often motivate such restrictions.
Crops and their needs
Tens of thousands of edible plants grow on Earth. But only 150 or so are grown widely as food crops. Nearly all of the plant-based calories people consume come from just a few dozen crops. And just three crops—corn, rice, and wheat—make up more than half of those calories. Other important plant-based sources of calories include cassava, millet, potato, sorghum, and soybeans.
All crops require nutrients and water to grow. Soil supplies most of the nutrients. It also stores the water that the crops need. Crops take root in the soil and absorb the nutrients and water through their roots.
Crops differ in the amount of nutrients and water they need. Farmers must make sure that the soil and water resources meet the needs of each crop. Farmers must also plan measures to control pests, which could damage or ruin a crop.
The science of field crop production is called agronomy. In many cases, farmers must use different methods to grow fruits, vegetables, and nuts. The science of growing these types of crops is called horticulture. For much more information on horticultural methods, see the articles Fruit and Gardening. Fruits and vegetables grown in large fields, such as pineapple and potatoes, are raised in much the same way as any other field crop.
Soil management.
Soil consists chiefly of mineral particles mixed with decaying organic (once living) matter. Chemical reactions involving these substances release most of the nutrients that crops need. Some of the most important reactions—notably, the decay of organic matter—require certain microorganisms. To be fertile, therefore, soil must consist of the right mixture of minerals, organic matter, and helpful microorganisms.
Soil must also hold proper amounts of air and water. A plant’s roots need air to function properly, and some microorganisms need air to survive. Too much moisture in the soil reduces the supply of air, drowning plant roots and destroying helpful microorganisms. Too little moisture deprives crops of needed water.
Plants need 17 chemical elements for healthy growth. The elements needed in the largest quantities are calcium, carbon, hydrogen, magnesium, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur. Most crops require relatively large amounts of these elements. Elements needed in lesser amounts are called trace elements. They are boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, and zinc. Certain types of plants also require small amounts of cobalt and silicon. Water and air supply all the necessary carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The other elements must come from the soil.
After deciding which crops to grow, farmers may analyze the soil to determine if the nutrient levels are adequate. Farmers can send soil samples to a soil-testing laboratory for an accurate analysis. The test results help the farmer plan a scientific program of fertilizer use. Chemical companies provide fertilizers to supply almost any crop requirement. Most crops absorb much nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Thus, most commercial fertilizers consist chiefly of these elements.
The richest soil, called topsoil, lies at and just below the surface. If this topsoil is not protected, it may be blown away by strong winds or washed away by heavy rains—a process called erosion. Effective soil management, therefore, also includes methods of soil conservation. These methods are discussed in detail in the Farming crops section of this article.
Water management.
In most cases, farmers rely entirely on rainfall to water crops. In some cases, however, farmers irrigate their crops. Where rainfall is light or uncertain, many farmers practice dryland farming. In dryland farming, part of the cropland is left fallow (unplanted) each year. The fallow soil can store moisture for a crop the following year. Wheat is the main crop grown by dryland farming.
Some farms have too much water rather than too little. An excess of water prevents roots from taking in air. In most instances, excess water occurs on low-lying land and on land crossed by streams or rivers. Fields that tend to have too much water require a drainage system. One common drainage system consists of lengths of tile pipe buried 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 meters) below the surface of the field. Excess water in the soil filters through cracks in the pipe and then flows to open drainage ditches at the edge of the field.
Pest control.
Agronomists use the word pest in referring to weeds, insects, and plant diseases—including those caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses—that threaten crops. In industrialized agriculture, the most common way of controlling pests is through the use of chemical pesticides. Scientists have developed thousands of pesticides for use on farms. Each one is designed to fight certain types of weeds, plant diseases, or harmful insects. All pesticides must be used with extreme care. If used improperly, they may pollute the environment or the food supply, endangering the health of people and animals. To help prevent such problems, many governments set and enforce standards for the manufacture, sale, and use of pesticides.
Farmers also use other methods of pest control in addition to pesticides. For example, turning the soil with a plow or mechanical cultivator kills most weeds. However, herbicides control weeds more thoroughly than does soil turning. Some herbicides remain active in the soil for long periods and so kill weed seedlings as they develop. Scientists have also developed pest-resistant crops through the use of crossbreeding and of genetic engineering.
Farmers may use a system known as integrated pest management to control pests. This system can include a combination of several methods. One method involves crop rotation, the planting of the same field with different crops from year to year. Rotating the crop can disrupt the spread of pests that damage a particular crop. Another method involves spraying a synthetic pheromone on a crop. A pheromone acts as a chemical signal, triggering special behavior in certain organisms. For example, a pheromone may prevent certain pest insects from mating (see Pheromone). In yet another method, farmers may increase the population of a pest’s natural predator in the area where a crop is planted. Another management technique, known as soil solarization, involves covering the soil with a black tarp before planting. The cover absorbs heat from sunlight and greatly increases the soil’s temperature, killing weeds and pests. Other techniques include changing planting seasons, increasing the distance between plants, and manually pulling weeds.
Farming crops
Field crop farming involves at least five separate operations: (1) preparing the soil, (2) planting, (3) cultivating, (4) harvesting, and (5) processing and storage. Tractors, which can pull or push other specialized farm machinery, can help in performing each of these operations easily and quickly. However, most small farmers in developing countries cannot afford such machinery. They perform farming tasks with small handheld tools or, in some cases, with instruments pulled by animals.
Preparing the soil
primarily involves establishing a seedbed—that is, an area of soil in which seeds can be planted and in which they will sprout, take root, and grow. Many farmers make the seedbed using an ancient process called tillage. Tillage involves digging into the soil and mixing it. Other farmers do not till the soil, or they till it only to a limited extent.
Tillage
loosens the soil, kills weeds, and improves the circulation of water and air in the soil. Plows serve as the chief tillage devices. One of the most common types of plow is the moldboard plow. The bottom of a moldboard plow turns over about the top 6 to 10 inches (15 to 25 centimeters) of soil. This method of plowing, called clean plowing, buries most weeds and other plant material that were on the surface.
At plowing time, some fields have cover crops, whereas others may be scattered with dead stalks and leaves and other plant residues. Both cover crops and plant residues help the soil maintain humidity and help reduce erosion. Plowing buries this material, adding more organic matter and nutrients to the soil.
In many areas, the topsoil is too thin or too fragile for clean plowing. Farmers in these areas use such implements as a chisel plow, a harrow, or a cultivator to break up the soil without turning it over completely. This method, called conservation tillage, kills fewer weeds than does clean plowing. But it leaves more plant matter on the surface and helps reduce erosion. Other plowing methods also help conserve soil. On sloping land, for example, farmers plow across, rather than up and down, the slope. The plowed soil forms ridges across the slope, helping to prevent erosion by rainwater. Such plowing is called contour plowing. 
No-till and reduced tillage
methods involve preparing a seedbed with little tilling or no tilling at all. In the no-till system, residues from the prior growing season, called mulch, are left covering the field. The mulch protects the soil against erosion and helps maintain moisture. Without tilling, weeds remain in the soil. Farmers thus typically use herbicides in place of tilling to kill weeds. Fertilizers are applied on the surface, where they dissolve in water and soak through the mulch. In most cases, no further soil preparation is necessary, and the seedbed is ready for planting.
Many farmers have adopted no-till or a reduced or conservation tillage system. The no-till method has many advantages compared with traditional tilling. For example, the mulch helps prevent erosion and helps keep moisture in the soil. By eliminating the mechanical turning of the soil, the method saves labor, time, and fuel. There is also less risk of compacting the soil and damaging its structure, because heavy machinery passes through the field fewer times. However, no-till has some disadvantages. For example, reliance on herbicides costs money and can have harmful effects on the environment. In addition, herbicides do not kill some weeds. Planting may also be delayed because mulch tends to keep fields cooler and moister.
Planting.
In areas of the Northern Hemisphere with mild winters, farmers typically plant certain types of barley, oats, and wheat in the fall. The plants begin to develop before the growing season ends and then rest during the winter. The young plants start to grow again in the spring and are ready to be harvested by midsummer. Where the winters are exceptionally cold, on the other hand, farmers plant most crops in the spring—after the danger of frost has passed.
Most field crops grown on large farms are planted by machines called planters or drills. These machines cut furrows (narrow grooves) in the soil, drop seeds into each furrow, and cover the seeds with soil—all in one operation. On the other hand, poor, small farmers usually plant seeds in three distinct steps—digging holes, dropping seeds in, and covering the seeds—with handheld equipment.
Farmers can use special planting methods to help conserve soil. On sloping land, for example, different crops are often planted in long, alternating strips. For example, corn may be planted between bands of alfalfa. The alfalfa helps slow the flow of rain water down the slope. This method of planting is called strip cropping.
Farmers may apply some fertilizers and pesticides to the soil during planting. These chemicals may be distributed by equipment attached to the seed drill.
Cultivating.
Herbicides applied before or during planting kill many kinds of weeds, but not all of them. Some weeds may therefore develop with the crops. Weeds are usually not a significant problem in small-grain fields because the plants grow close together, leaving little room for weeds. In fields where row crops are grown, however, weeds can multiply rapidly between rows. Farmers often control such weeds with cultivators. These devices stir the soil between rows, uprooting and burying any weeds. Farmers who are poor may spend several hours a week uprooting weeds by hand or with a hand hoe.
Harvesting.
Nearly all large farms harvest field crops using machines. Combines are used to harvest most grain and seed crops, including barley, corn, rice, soybeans, and wheat. A combine performs several tasks. First, it cuts the plant stalks. Then, it threshes the cuttings—that is, it separates the grain or seeds from the straw and other residues. The combine returns the residues to the ground and collects the grain or seeds in a tank or bin.
Some farmers harvest corn with special machines. The machines pick the ears from the stalks but do not remove the grain from the ears. The grain is removed later. The grain is then processed to make livestock feed. In the case of sweet corn, the ears are left whole and sold for human consumption. Special machines are also used to harvest other field crops, including peanuts, potatoes, and sugar beets. Some machines mow such crops as alfalfa and clover. The machines leave the mowed crops on the ground, where they dry and become hay. Machines called hay balers gather the hay and bind it into bales.
Some farmers harvest green grain or grass to make a kind of livestock feed called silage. To make silage, farmers harvest the entire plant and then chop it up. Some silage machines harvest the crop and chop it in one operation.
Processing and storage.
Crops raised to supply food for human consumption are called food crops. Many food crops tend to spoil quickly, so farmers ship these crops to market as soon as possible. Food grains, however, can be stored for months on farms with proper facilities. Before grain is stored, it must be dried. Most farms that store large amounts of grain have special grain-drying equipment and large storage bins.
Crops raised to supply feed for livestock are called feed crops. Some crops, such as corn and soybeans, are used for both human food and livestock feed. Various grass crops are used to make hay and silage. Hay must be kept dry until it is used, so it is usually stored in barns. Unlike hay, silage must be kept moist. Most farmers store it in airtight structures called silos. Soybeans must be specially processed to be used for livestock feed. Most farmers buy soybean meal ready-made from commercial suppliers. Such suppliers have removed the oil from the soybeans to use for food products and other purposes. Many farmers have equipment for milling feed grains other than soybeans. Farmers often feed corn to hogs without any processing.
The needs of livestock
To raise livestock successfully, farmers must provide the animals with proper daily care. They must also purchase new animals or select certain animals for breeding to replace those that are slaughtered for market or that outgrow their usefulness.
Livestock care
consists of providing feed and shelter for the animals and safeguarding their health. The success of a livestock farm largely depends on how skillfully the farmer manages each of these jobs.
Feed
can be divided into two main types: (1) forage and (2) feed concentrates. Forage consists of plants that livestock graze on or that have been cut to make hay or silage. Forage supplies livestock mainly with roughage (fiber). Feed concentrates consist chiefly of feed grains, such as corn and sorghum, and soybean meal. They mainly serve as a source of food energy and contain little roughage. In most cases, the grain is milled and mixed with vitamins and minerals. Some farmers also add antibiotics and synthetic hormones to feed concentrates to promote the animals’ health and growth. Some farmers produce their own concentrates. Other farmers buy feed concentrates from commercial suppliers.
Cattle and sheep can live mainly on forage. Their digestive systems enable them to break down forage. Both sheep and cattle consume forage by grazing in pastures. However, cattle and sheep that are confined, either indoors or outdoors, are fed hay or silage. Although these animals can live on forage, farmers also feed them concentrates to ensure a balanced diet. Cattle and sheep that are being prepared for slaughter are usually fed large amounts of concentrates. The high-energy content of such a diet helps finish (fatten) the animals quickly. Unlike cattle and sheep, hogs and poultry cannot digest large quantities of forage. Most farmers therefore raise them primarily on concentrates.
Most livestock farms require substantial quantities of prepared feed. An egg-laying hen, for example, needs about 1/2 to 4 pounds (0.2 to 1.8 kilograms) of feed each week. A dairy cow eats about 300 to 700 pounds (135 to 315 kilograms) of feed each week.
Shelter.
Most kinds of livestock need protection against extremely cold weather. Mature beef cattle and sheep, however, are less affected by the cold than are the majority of livestock. This resilience is due to the cattle’s hide and the sheep’s thick pelt. Ranchers may keep these animals on open rangeland throughout the year. Most other farmers provide shelter for their animals at least part of the time. Some livestock, including most poultry and swine, may be raised entirely indoors.
Health care
for livestock has become much more effective through the development of vaccines and other drugs. Before these drugs were available, such diseases as anthrax and hog cholera killed large numbers of livestock. Farmers now prevent many kinds of diseases by having their animals vaccinated. Animals with infectious diseases can be treated with penicillin and other germ-killing antibiotics. Farmers sometimes add low levels of antibiotics to livestock feed as a preventive measure, especially in the case of young animals.
Livestock breeding.
Most farm animals are raised to provide livestock products. However, some farmers also raise breeding stock—that is, animals of superior quality that are used mainly to make offspring. The offspring may inherit a combination of their parents’ desirable qualities, such as large size and weight or exceptional ability to produce milk or eggs. Farmers select animals to become breeding stock on the basis of their qualities and those of their offspring. For example, a cow that produces much milk and whose daughter does the same may be removed from the milk herd and placed in the breeding herd. After a number of years, such selective breeding can significantly improve the quality of all the animals on a farm.
The development of artificial insemination and embryo transfers has greatly sped up the process of selective breeding. Artificial insemination technology enables farmers to extract sperm (male reproductive cells) from a superior bull, freeze it, and ship it to many different farms. The sperm can then be inserted into a large number of cows, which will give birth to desirable offspring. Additionally, farmers can take fertilized eggs from cows with superior traits and insert them into a number of additional cows. This technique, called embryo transfer, increases the number of offspring with the superior traits. For detailed information about livestock breeding, see Livestock (Breeding livestock).
Raising livestock
Many small farmers integrate livestock animals with the rest of their farming system. They may use the animals to pull farm equipment or supply manure for fertilizer. Other livestock farms are more specialized. Livestock production on such farms involves three main types of activities. They are (1) livestock grazing, (2) livestock finishing, and (3) confinement operations.
Livestock grazing
takes place on about a fourth of all land on Earth. In the United States, about two-thirds of farmland is used for livestock grazing, especially for beef cattle and sheep. Most of this land is grassland on ranches in the western half of the United States. However, ranches do not produce enough grain or other high-energy feed to finish the animals for slaughter. In developed countries, ranchers often ship their meat animals to specialized farms for finishing. Sheep raised for wool live mainly on grass, so these animals remain on the ranch. Dairy cows do not have to be fattened because their main purpose is to produce milk. However, after cows have calved (given birth), dairy farmers typically supply them with a rich diet of silage and concentrate to help them produce the optimum amount of milk.
Livestock finishing,
or fattening, relies on the large-scale use of feed concentrates. Livestock finishing often takes place in major grain-producing areas. For example, in the United States, the majority of hog farms are in the chief corn-producing states, such as Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Nebraska. Some farmers finish beef cattle, hogs, or sheep that they have raised from birth. Many others sell their young animals for finishing, either to farmers who have excess feed grain or to feed lots. Feed lots specialize in finishing young beef cattle or sheep. The animals are kept in pens and fed large amounts of feed concentrates. The largest feed lots finish thousands of animals at a time.
Confinement operations
mass-produce certain kinds of livestock and livestock products. The largest operations produce poultry and eggs. Feed lots are a form of a confinement operation. Many feed lots are simply areas of open land that have been fenced in and divided into large pens. The animals are confined inside the pens, but they can still move relatively freely. In a full confinement operation, the animals are kept inside a building in pens or individual cages that greatly limit their motion. These animals use less energy by moving little and not fighting or competing for mates. As a result, they can produce more meat or other products.
Many confinement buildings have enclosures for hundreds or even thousands of animals. Most of these buildings are equipped with automatic machinery that brings feed to the animals and clears away their waste. In the United States, nearly all broiler chickens and a large share of laying hens are raised in confinement. A large number of American farmers also use confinement techniques to raise hogs, beef cattle, and dairy cattle. The technique is used to increase production efficiency and maximize the use of land.
The use of confinement on organic farms is somewhat restricted. By law, organic farms must allow their livestock some access to the outdoors, though the access may simply be a small fenced-in area outside the building. Some farmers raise livestock largely on pastures or in outdoor environments, marketing their products as more humane than those raised on industrialized farms.
Farm management
Farm management is the process by which farmers maximize their efficiency and use of resources to receive the highest possible profits while sustaining the future livelihood of their farms. Farm management involves all aspects of farming, including selecting inputs, managing production, protecting soil and water resources, and seeking out ideal markets for farm products. Some farm owners hire dedicated farm managers to run their farms.
Managing risk.
Farms face unique business risks. A farm’s success depends heavily on factors out of farmers’ control, such as weather and the behavior of global markets. As a result, farm income can vary greatly between farms and from year to year.
Farmers must identify risks and prepare accordingly. They must be prepared to keep costs low and to absorb unexpected crop losses and changes in the cost of such inputs as seeds, fertilizers, and fuel. The prices of farm products also tend to fluctuate greatly, introducing more uncertainty. Farmers must be prepared to financially survive an unexpected disaster, such as a sudden freeze, drought, or pest infestation. For farmers in developing countries, a weather disaster could mean the loss of their farms or even starvation. In developed countries, on the other hand, many commercial farmers can purchase crop insurance, which may cover a portion of their loss in such circumstances. Farmers may also take advantage of government disaster assistance programs.
Financing.
Unlike many workers, farmers do not receive a steady weekly or monthly income. Farmers get paid only after production, when they sell their crops or livestock products. Thus, farmers must make a significant initial investment in inputs, followed by a long period of labor, before they actually make money. During this time, farmers often must seek financial assistance. This assistance may include farm loan programs, agricultural subsidies, and price supports. These methods of assistance are discussed in a later section.
Marketing.
Most farm products are commodities. A commodity is a raw, unprocessed good—such as grain or milk—that can easily be bought and sold in large amounts around the world. In general, a commodity produced in one place sells for about the same price as a commodity produced in another.
Some farmers sell directly to food-processing companies, stores, or customers. However, farmers may have difficulty finding or reaching high-paying buyers—or, in some cases, any buyers at all. Many farmers thus belong to marketing cooperatives. A marketing cooperative tries to find the best markets for its members’ products. Cooperatives generally assure farmers of a market, but they may not guarantee a specific selling price. If the supply of a product exceeds the demand, the price normally falls.
Some commercial farmers can nearly eliminate marketing risks by an arrangement called contract farming. In contract farming, a farmer signs a contract with a food-processing or food-distributing firm. In most cases, the firm agrees to pay a certain price for a specified amount of the farmer’s product. Crops and livestock for processing or export are often produced under such agreements. However, not all farmers support contract farming. Such arrangements can give buyers a great deal of power, potentially enabling them to take advantage of farmers. In addition, farmers who sell on contract generally cannot benefit if market prices rise.
Some farmers sell beef cattle, hogs, and sheep at auction markets. The buyers at a livestock auction bid on the animals, and the animals are sold to the highest bidder.
If farmers can add value to a product and distinguish it from other commodities, they may be able to charge higher prices. For example, some farmers produce a subset of goods for alternative or high-demand markets. These products, such as organic foods, may sell for higher prices. Farmers may also market their products directly to local urban or suburban consumers. Such consumers may be willing to pay a premium for locally produced farm goods. In community-supported agriculture, local consumers pay farmers a set price for a season’s worth of farm goods. Such programs enable farmers to gain income before harvest.
Challenges and resources for farmers
Farms in developed countries today are the most productive in history by far. Farmers today can take advantage of a wide array of labor-saving technology. Farmers also benefit from communication technology, which helps them learn about the latest agricultural advances and monitor global markets.
But farmers continue to face many challenges. Earth’s increasing population—and rising standards of living in many countries—puts pressure on farmers to produce enough food to meet demand. Meanwhile, rising costs of fuel, fertilizer, and other petroleum-based inputs also put pressure on farmers. Although farms have greatly expanded in the last century, much of their expansion has involved cutting down forests or disrupting areas with poor soil and fragile ecosystems. Such marginal lands are difficult to protect against degradation. Much modern agricultural research involves balancing the production of an adequate food supply with protecting Earth’s environment.
In developed countries, farmers benefit from a number of government programs that provide them with a measure of financial security. But such security does not always extend to farmworkers. Many farms employ migrant laborers. Such workers move into an area temporarily to harvest time-sensitive crops, such as ripe fruit. Migrant workers generally receive low wages. In many developed countries, especially the United States, migrant workers often come from poorer, developing countries. Such workers have few of the protections offered to the developed countries’ citizens.
In less developed countries, many farmers are too poor to afford labor-saving or communications technology. In addition, few, if any, government programs exist to help these farmers. Such farmers have great difficulty escaping poverty and hunger.
Resources for farmers.
Farmers in developed countries benefit from a number of government resources. Farm subsidies include direct payments to farmers. Various other government programs offer assistance to farmers in the form of loans or disaster relief.
Farm subsidies
help stabilize farm income and influence overall agricultural production. Many countries offer farm subsidies. They can support farmers when prices for farm products are low. They also may encourage the production—or lack of production—of certain crops. In the United States, common farm commodities supported by subsidies are corn, wheat, feed grains, barley, rice, oats, cotton, milk, peanuts, sugar, tobacco, and oilseeds. Additionally, farmers may receive subsidies for conservation efforts, for help after disasters, and for research.
Subsidies were originally created to protect farmers from the inherent risks in agricultural production. But subsidies are often controversial. From an economic perspective, subsidies can cause distortions in agricultural markets. For example, a subsidy may encourage the widespread growing of a crop, creating an unnecessarily large surplus. In addition, many beneficiaries of government subsidies are large, profitable farms. Subsidies may also be poorly targeted or mismanaged. During the 2000’s, for example, more than $1 billion in U.S. subsidies went to landowners who no longer actually used their land for farming.
Other programs.
Many government programs help farmers in various ways. They include farm loan programs, energy programs, and disaster assistance programs. In the United States, these programs are funded through the Farm Service Agency (FSA) of the USDA. Similar programs exist in other developed countries.
Farm loan programs aid farmers in securing money for farming and ranching needs. Farm ownership loans help farmers purchase or enlarge their farms or ranches. Operating loans help pay for agricultural equipment, livestock, repairs, and other operating expenses. Emergency loans are available to farmers who have suffered agricultural losses caused by such natural disasters as droughts, floods, or tornadoes. Conservation loans assist farmers to implement conservation practices. In the awarding of loans, special consideration may be given to support inexperienced, socially disadvantaged, minority, or women farmers.
Energy programs assist producers of renewable energy sources, such as crops that are used to make biofuels. Biofuels are fuels derived from materials in plants. They contrast with fossil fuels, which are derived from limited and dwindling supplies of coal, oil, and natural gas.
Disaster assistance programs provide aid to farmers in the event of agricultural losses due to natural disaster. The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) is a voluntary program for those who own agricultural land. The CRP pays incentives or provides assistance to farmers who participate in efforts to help preserve farmland, soil, wetlands, grasslands, forests, and source waters or engage in other environmentally beneficial activities.
Farm organizations.
In the United States, the USDA supports agriculture in many ways. For example, the USDA helps to support farmers by supporting rural communities in general, through grants, loans, insurance programs, technological and disaster assistance, and education and research programs. The agency also heads conservation efforts and works to ensure food security in both the United States and the rest of the world. Food security is the reliable access of households to a healthy diet of food. The USDA works with and funds many other organizations that support farming.
Also in the United States, schools called land-grant universities and their colleges of agriculture, food, and environmental sciences support farming. They conduct research at experimental stations and spread new knowledge to farmers through Cooperative Extension offices in counties throughout the country.
Many farmers are members of organizations concerned with the growing of a particular commodity. Farmers pay annual fees, which support adult education within the group. Often, commodity organizations work with land-grant universities. United States farmers also benefit from other nongovernmental organizations, notably the American Farm Bureau Federation. Farm-oriented youth organizations in the United States include 4-H, the Young Farmers Association, and the National FFA Organization.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) are major international farm organizations. They work to eliminate hunger around the world by improving nutrition and farm production. They also offer technical assistance and advice on agricultural policy and planning.
Farming and hunger.
In the 2010’s, nearly 1 billion people suffered from hunger and malnutrition. Nearly all of them lived in less developed countries, and many were small farmers in rural areas. Such farmers usually live on land with marginal growing potential. They often lack access to such resources as water for irrigation, productive varieties of crops, fertilizer, farming machinery, and scientific knowledge. Farmers who are poor also tend to be especially vulnerable to loss from environmental damage. Global warming, the observed rise in Earth’s average temperature, is forecast to change the climate in many of the places where poor small farmers live, introducing more challenges to their livelihoods.
Farm-based economic growth has been shown to be more effective in fighting poverty than is growth in any other industrial sector. Increasing access to agricultural education—particularly for female farmers—has been identified as a source of many potential benefits to farming systems in less developed countries.
