Galileo, << `gal` uh LAY oh or `gal` uh LEE oh >> (1564-1642), an Italian astronomer, has been called a founder of modern experimental science . In 1609, Galileo made the first effective use of the refracting telescope to discover important new facts about astronomy . He also discovered the law of falling bodies as well as the law of the pendulum . Galileo designed a variety of scientific instruments. He developed and improved the refracting telescope, though he did not invent it.
Early life.
Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa on Feb. 15, 1564. In the early 1570’s, his family moved to Florence . Galileo began his formal education at a school in a nearby monastery . Galileo’s father was determined that his son should be a doctor. The boy’s family sent him to the University of Pisa in 1581. Galileo studied medicine and the philosophy of Aristotle for the next four years.
Early scientific interests.
Galileo’s years as a student at Pisa marked a turning point for him. Never really interested in medicine, he discovered he had a talent for mathematics . In 1585, he persuaded his father to let him leave the university. Back in Florence with his family, Galileo spent the next four years as a tutor in mathematics. During this time, he began to question Aristotelian philosophy and scientific thought. At the same time, he gained his first public notice with his new hydrostatic balance . The balance was an instrument used to find the specific gravity of objects by weighing them in water.
In 1589, Galileo was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Pisa. This position required him to teach courses in astronomy. He was supposed to base the courses on the Greek astronomer Ptolemy’s theory that the sun and all the planets revolve around Earth . Preparing for these courses deepened Galileo’s understanding of astronomical theory. In 1592, he took up duties as professor of mathematics at the University of Padua . He spent the next 18 years there. During this time, he became convinced of the truth of the theory, proposed by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus , that all planets, including Earth, revolve around the sun.
Mature scientific career.
In 1609, while still at Padua, Galileo built his first telescope. Turning it to the sky, he saw clear evidence that many of Aristotle’s and Ptolemy’s claims about the heavens were false. Galileo’s first discovery was that the moon is not perfectly smooth, as Aristotle and Ptolemy had thought. Instead, the moon was mountainous and pitted, much like Earth. He made his most sensational discovery in 1610. In that year, he found four objects circling Jupiter . Galileo announced the discovery in a paper called The Sidereal Messenger. He named the new moons the “Medicean Planets,” in the hope of winning the favor of the Medici , the ruling family of Florence.
Later in 1610, Cosimo II de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany , named Galileo his chief mathematician and philosopher. The position brought Galileo back to Florence. It also ended his teaching responsibilities, enabling Galileo to devote himself to research. Continuing his studies of the heavens, Galileo made observations of sunspots , Saturn , and Venus . He noted that, much like the moon, Venus progresses through phases. This fact confirmed his doubts about Ptolemaic astronomy. It deepened his conviction of the truth of Copernicus’s theory that Earth and the planets revolve around the sun. Announcements of these findings, beginning in 1610, increased Galileo’s fame as an astronomer.
Galileo also pursued research on motion—especially the motion of freely falling bodies. The problem, as he saw it, was the Aristotelian theory of motion. The theory referred all motion to a stationary Earth at the center of the universe, making it impossible to believe Earth actually moves. Galileo went to work to develop a theory of motion consistent with a moving Earth.
Among the most important results of this search were the law of the pendulum and the law of freely falling bodies. Galileo observed that pendulums of equal length swing at the same rate whether their arcs are large or small. Modern measuring instruments show that the rate is actually somewhat greater if the arc is large. Galileo’s law of falling bodies states that all objects fall at the same speed, regardless of their mass. It also says that, as bodies fall, the speed of their descent increases uniformly. Galileo’s experiments and conclusions helped establish the science of mechanics , the study of forces and motion.
Galileo and the Roman Catholic Church.
Galileo’s quick wit, which he often used to ridicule his opponents, earned him a number of enemies. In 1613, Galileo wrote a letter in which he tried to show that the Copernican theory was consistent with both Catholic doctrine and proper Biblical interpretation. Some of his enemies sent a copy of this letter to the inquisitors in Rome . The inquisitors sought out and punished heretics —people who opposed church teachings. Galileo expanded his arguments about the relationship between science and scripture in a second letter written in 1615. In early 1616, Galileo traveled to Rome to discuss whether the Copernican theory conflicted with the Roman Catholic faith. Although he was cleared of charges of heresy, he was ordered not to hold, teach, or defend the Copernican theory. That is, he could treat the theory hypothetically but not treat it as if it were true.
In 1632, Galileo finished his most complete work on the structure of the heavens. It was a book called the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. In this work, he compared thetheory of Ptolemy and Aristotle to the Copernican theory. Galileo claimed to treat the two views equally. But the style of writing and the information presented clearly indicated the superiority of the Copernican system. Once again, Galileo was summoned to Rome. This time, he had to answer to the charge of willfully disobeying the order not to hold, teach, or defend Copernicus’s theory. In 1633, the Inquisition found Galileo guilty of the charge. The church forced him to recant (publicly withdraw his statement) and sentenced him to life imprisonment.
Because of Galileo’s advanced age and poor health, the church allowed him to serve his imprisonment under house arrest in a villa outside Florence. There, he passed the remainder of his years in isolation. Eventually, he became blind . But he managed to complete his final scientific masterpiece, the Discourse on Two New Sciences, published in 1638. In this work, Galileo provided both a mathematical proof of his new theory of motion and an original study of the tensile strength of materials. Tensile strength is the maximum stress a material can withstand before breaking. He died on Jan. 8, 1642. In 1979, Pope John Paul II declared that the Roman Catholic Church may have been mistaken in condemning Galileo. He instructed a church commission to study Galileo’s case. In 1983, the commission concluded that Galileo should not have been condemned. In 1984, at the commission’s recommendation, the church published all documents related to Galileo’s trial. In 1992, Pope John Paul II publicly endorsed the commission’s finding that the church had made a mistake in condemning Galileo.
Galileo’s scientific contribution.
Galileo made many important contributions to astronomy. Historians disagree, however, about Galileo’s role as a founder of modern experimental science. In fact, some of them doubt the importance of experiment in Galileo’s scientific development. These historians maintain that Galileo’s real originality lay in the way he approached scientific problems. First, Galileo reduced those problems to simple terms on the basis of everyday experience and common-sense logic. Then he analyzed and resolved the problems according to simple mathematical descriptions. The success with which Galileo applied this technique to the analysis of physics , especially the physics of motion, opened the way for the development of modern mathematical physics.
Galileo also pioneered the presentation of scientific findings to the widest possible audience. He wrote in clear, witty Italian rather than Latin , the scholarly language of his time. The broad public appeal of his Dialogue most likely contributed to Galileo’s condemnation by the church.
