Germany is a large country in central Europe. It has more people than any other European country except Russia. Berlin, Germany’s capital and largest city, is a cultural, economic, and political center of Europe.
Germany’s land ranges from a low, flat plain in the north to mountainous regions in the south. The southern alpine region, or the Bavarian Alps, is a favorite winter sports destination. The Black Forest, a mountainous area in southwest Germany, is known for its mineral springs and health resorts. In western Germany, the Rhine River winds through valleys lined with picturesque castles. Dense forests and ravines surround villages in Germany’s central Harz Mountains. Attractive beaches, bays, and inlets line Germany’s Baltic and North Sea shorelines. Lake Constance and Rügen, Germany’s largest island, are popular tourist destinations. Germany also has many national parks.
Germans have made important contributions to art, culture, science, and technology. For example, Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven are two of history’s greatest composers. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Thomas Mann, and Heinrich Böll wrote literary masterpieces. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm are known for their collection of fairy tales and for their work in establishing the German Dictionary. Numerous German scientists have excelled in such fields as astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, and physics.
For much of its history, Germany was a fragmented land of many separate states. One of the most powerful states was the kingdom of Prussia, which began its rise in the 1600’s. During the late 1800’s, Otto von Bismarck, the prime minister of Prussia, united most of these states under Prussian leadership. After Bismarck, German leaders tried to expand their influence in Europe and overseas. These policies contributed to the start of World War I (1914-1918). Germany was defeated in the war, and political and economic crises followed.
In 1933, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler took control of Germany. Under Hitler, Germany persecuted many of its own citizens. The nation also expanded its military and annexed nearby territories. In 1939, Germany invaded Poland, starting World War II (1939-1945). Germany lost the war, and many of its cities were destroyed. Germany was then divided into zones that, in 1949, became West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany) and East Germany (the German Democratic Republic). Berlin was also divided. West Germany became a parliamentary democracy with strong ties to Western Europe and the United States. East Germany became a Communist dictatorship closely aligned with the Soviet Union and its Communist allies, a group often referred to as the Eastern bloc.
The West Germans and East Germans rebuilt their shattered industries and made them more productive than ever. West Germany became one of the world’s leading industrial nations. Although East Germany’s economic development was not as rapid, the country ranked as one of the most economically advanced in the Eastern bloc. East Germany’s restrictive government policies, however, led millions to flee to West Germany. In 1961, East Germany built the Berlin Wall to prevent East Germans from escaping to the West.
In 1989, reform movements swept through the Communist nations of Europe. In East Germany, political protests and massive emigration led the government to allow its citizens to travel freely for the first time. The end of travel restrictions included the opening of the Berlin Wall on Nov. 9, 1989. Also for the first time, non-Communist political parties were permitted to organize. In March 1990, East Germany held free parliamentary elections, and non-Communists gained control of the government.
The decline of the Soviet Union and the end of Communist control in East Germany led many Germans, in both East and West Germany, to consider unification. In July 1990, East Germany and West Germany united their economies into one system. In August, both nations signed a treaty to finalize unification. The treaty took effect on October 3—a date now celebrated as the Day of German Unity.
Government
In 1990, West Germany’s constitution, known as the Basic Law, became the basis of the newly reunited Federal Republic of Germany. The government’s main bodies and offices include a legislature, a federal chancellor, and a Cabinet.
Legislative branch.
The German legislature has two houses: the Bundestag (Federal Diet, or Federal Parliament ) and the Bundesrat (Federal Council). The Bundestag has hundreds of members and is the more powerful of the two houses. It passes laws and chooses the head of government. Voters elect members of the Bundestag to four-year terms. Germany’s 16 states are represented at the federal level in the Bundesrat. The Bundesrat’s 69 members work on laws directly related to the states, such as those dealing with education and local government.
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Executive branch.
The federal chancellor is the head of Germany’s government. The chancellor is elected by a majority of the Bundestag to a four-year term. The chancellor selects the ministers who make up the Cabinet and head government departments.
The federal president is the head of state and is elected to a five-year term by the Federal Convention. The convention includes Bundestag members and delegates elected by the state legislatures. The president has a number of official duties, but the powers of the office are largely ceremonial. 
Judicial branch.
Germany’s highest court is the Federal Constitutional Court. It interprets the Constitution and settles disputes between the executive and legislative branches and between federal and state governments. The Bundestag and Bundesrat elect the court’s 16 federal judges. Each judge serves a single 12-year term.
Germany’s lower courts include administrative, financial, labor, ordinary, and social courts. Germany’s civil law system is based mainly on statutes (legislative acts).
State government.
Germany has 16 states. Each state has its own limited legislature. Members of most of the legislatures are elected to four-year terms. In the city-states of Berlin, Bremen, and Hamburg, a mayor heads the government.
Politics.
The Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Social Democratic Party (SPD) are Germany’s largest political parties. The CDU’s branch in Bavaria is the Christian Social Union. Traditionally, both large parties support close ties to other Western nations. The CDU has conservative economic and social policies. The Social Democratic Party supports more social welfare programs and greater regulation of the economy.
In most national elections, neither of the major political parties gains enough seats to control the Bundestag. In such cases, the party that has the most seats must form a coalition (alliance) with one or more other parties to gain a majority of seats in the Bundestag. These other, smaller parties include the Free Democratic Party, the Left Party, and Alliance ’90/The Greens. Germans must be at least 18 years old to vote.
Armed forces.
After World War II, the Allies—the countries that had defeated Germany—planned to keep Germany disarmed. But by the 1950’s, the Western Allies wanted West Germany’s help against possible Communist expansion. West Germany joined the military alliance called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1955 and began to build up its armed forces under NATO command. After unification in 1990, Germany remained in NATO. Today’s German Federal Armed Forces, or Bundeswehr, include an army, navy, and air force, as well as support and medical services.
People
Germany ranks second in population among the countries of Europe. Only Russia has more people. Berlin is Germany’s capital and largest city.
Ancestry.
Ethnic Germans are descended from many ancient tribes, including the Alemanni, Cimbri, Franks, Goths, Saxons, and Teutons. A small group of Slavic people called Sorbs live in eastern Germany. Other minorities include Danes, Frisians, and the Sinti (or Sinte) and Roma (sometimes called Gypsies). Most of the people living in Germany were born there, but large cities have a mix of different native nationalities. Many people from other nations moved to Germany with their families as guest workers after World War II. Arriving to help with the country’s reconstruction, many people came from Turkey, the Balkan Peninsula, and Italy.
During the 1950’s, a heavily guarded 858-mile (1,381-kilometer) border divided Germany between East and West. The East German government restricted travel, and families and friends were separated from one another. Many East Germans, however, were able to flee to West Germany through Berlin. In August 1961, the Communist government of East Germany closed off this escape route by building the high, heavily guarded Berlin Wall between eastern and western sectors of the city. Some East Germans were allowed to resettle in West Germany, but most people were forbidden from even visiting there.
In 1989, as reform movements swept through Eastern Europe, thousands of East Germans fled to West Germany by way of neighboring countries. In response to these departures and popular protests, the East German government lifted all restrictions on travel. The Berlin Wall was opened and later torn down. East Germans were permitted to travel to West Germany or any other country. In addition, West Germans were permitted to visit East Germany without any restrictions. About 2 million ethnic Germans from the countries of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union immigrated to Germany. Hundreds of thousands of refugees of other ethnic backgrounds have also settled in Germany.
Language.
Two main forms of the German language have long been spoken in Germany: High German in the south and center and Low German in the north. In addition, there are many dialects associated with particular regions or cities. Schools, businesses, the Internet, newspapers, radio, and television use an official form of the High German language called Standard German. As shown in this article, all German nouns are capitalized.
Way of life
German is a modern, multicultural country with a high standard of living. Most Germans live in urban areas. Many German cities were destroyed during World War II. In some of them, such as Munich, the old city center has been restored. Most cities, however, have buildings dating from the postwar construction of the 1950’s and 1960’s. Many Germans live on farms or in small communities, but rural populations are shrinking. Many Germans have moved to large cities in search of better economic opportunities.
Food and drink.
Breakfast often consists of bread, rolls, soft pretzels, marmalade, honey, butter, Nutella (a chocolate hazelnut spread), fruit, cereal, eggs, or yogurt with coffee, tea, or juice. Many Germans eat their main meal of the day at noon with their families at home. This main meal often features pork, beef, fish, or chicken, and includes such vegetables as asparagus, beets, cabbage, and carrots. Potatoes, introduced to Germany in the 1700’s, are a staple of German cuisine. Pasta and dumplings are common as well. In the afternoon, especially on Sunday, many Germans enjoy pastries or cake with coffee. For supper, Germans generally eat a light meal later in the evening consisting of bread, cheese, salad, pickles, relish, and cold cuts or sausage. Beer, wine, and Schorle (fruit juice or wine mixed with sparkling mineral water) are popular beverages. German beer and wine are famous for their quality and taste.
Many famous German dishes were created hundreds of years ago to prevent foods from spoiling. Sauerkraut was developed to preserve cabbage. To preserve meat, German cooks soaked it in vinegar and spices to create Sauerbraten. They also preserved meats by making such sausages as bratwurst and frankfurters (created in the German city of Frankfurt). Germans have also developed many kinds of cheese, including Limburger, Münster, and Tilsiter, which were named for their regions of origin. Traditional German gingerbread, called Lebkuchen or Honigkuchen, is popular at outdoor Christmas markets and Oktoberfest celebrations.
Recreation.
Germans enjoy a wide variety of activities such as reading, gardening, swimming, and watching automobile races and soccer matches. Many young people go on bicycling or hiking trips. They carry a knapsack, or Rucksack, and spend the night camping or staying at inexpensive inns called youth hostels. Germany has many lakes and rivers for rowing, sailing, windsurfing, and swimming. Many towns have public pools. Gymnastics, tennis, track, handball, and shooting are also popular. Skiing, figure skating, and bobsledding are favorite winter sports.
Soccer is the most popular organized sport in Germany. There are thousands of amateur soccer clubs and many professional teams, most of which represent various towns or cities. The German men’s and women’s national soccer teams rank among the world’s best. Many Germans also enjoy concerts, operas, plays, music festivals, and other outdoor performances. Larger cities host movie festivals, fashion weeks, car shows, book fairs, and exhibitions at galleries and museums. Beer gardens, shopping centers, discothèques (dance clubs), nightclubs, restaurants, and cafes are popular places to meet.
Religion.
The religious movement called the Reformation started in Germany. It began in 1517 when Martin Luther, a German monk, protested practices of the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation led to the establishment of Protestantism. By 1600, most people in northern and central Germany had become Protestants. Most of those in the south remained Roman Catholics. Today, about a third of the population is Protestant, mostly Lutheran, and a third is Roman Catholic. A small percentage of the population is Muslim. Many other Germans list no religious affiliation.
More than 500,000 Jews lived in Germany when the Nazis came to power in 1933. By the end of World War II, most Jews had been killed by the Nazis or had fled the country. Today, about 100,000 people belong to Jewish congregations in Germany.
Education.
The German states were among the first in the world to set up a public education system for all children. Prussia established such a system during the early 1800’s. The other German states developed their own systems by the mid-1800’s.
Germany has long had one of the finest university systems in the world. The University of Heidelberg, founded in 1386, is Germany’s oldest university and among the most prestigious. Humboldt University (formerly the University of Berlin) and the University of Leipzig (called Karl Marx University from 1953 to 1991) are especially famous for scientific research. From 1900 to 1933, German scientists won more Nobel Prizes than scientists from any other country. University study in Germany has been traditionally tuition-free, and today the costs remain low by Western standards. Students come from around the world to study at German universities.
Students in Germany’s vocational training system learn practical and theoretical aspects of a career both on the job and in the classroom. The government works with private companies to finance the two or three years needed to complete a vocational program.
From age 3, most children begin attending Kindergarten, a common preschool system that originated in Germany in the 1840’s. Beginning at age 6, children attend a primary school, or Grundschule, for four years. Based upon their abilities and teacher recommendations, they then attend one of several types of secondary schools. A Gymnasium is academically challenging and prepares students for entrance into a university. Another type of secondary school, called a Realschule, provides academic as well as job training. Students who are interested in careers in administration, business, or civil service attend a Realschule. Other schools called Hauptschulen provide technical or vocational training. Hauptschulen have fewer academic subjects and help students learn a trade. Gesamtschulen are comprehensive schools that combine the three types of secondary education and resemble high schools in the United States. Most students complete their secondary education at age 18.
Arts
Many of the world’s greatest artists, musicians, writers, and thinkers have been German. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, German architects, painters, and sculptors produced great works, mostly with religious subjects. During the 1700’s, many German writers and thinkers were part of the European Enlightenment, which focused on rational thinking. In the late 1700’s and early 1800’s, Germans helped create the Romantic movement. Germans were also among the pioneers in modern art, motion pictures, literature, and music.
This section mentions only some of the most important German contributions to the arts. For more detailed information, see the separate articles on Architecture; Classical music; Drama; German literature; Motion picture; Opera; Painting; Sculpture; and Theater.
Literature and philosophy.
One of the greatest periods of German literature lasted from about 1750 to 1830. During these years, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Friedrich Schiller, Friedrich Hölderlin, Heinrich von Kleist, and many other German novelists, poets, and dramatists produced significant works. The most important German philosopher during this period was Immanuel Kant, who wrote three influential works in the 1780’s.
During the early 1800’s, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel produced a philosophy of history that had a lasting impact on Western thought. Hegel’s work greatly influenced Karl Marx, a philosopher, social scientist, and professional revolutionary. Marx was the chief founder of the two powerful movements of democratic socialism and revolutionary Communism. Marx used Hegelian ideas as the basis for his theories.
Beginning in the mid-1800’s, German writers and philosophers often focused on the political and cultural situations in their own land. The poet Heinrich Heine produced works that were critical of the German political establishment. Friedrich Nietzsche wrote a series of philosophical works on the nature of language and culture. From 1890 to 1920, Max Weber created a series of studies about modern society. During the 1900’s, novelist Thomas Mann and dramatist Bertolt Brecht wrote about the problems of German politics and culture
After the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945, such writers as Günter Grass, Heinrich Böll, Ruth Klüger, and Paul Celan tried to come to terms with Germany’s Nazi past. In East Germany, Christa Wolf and many other writers explored the challenges of that nation’s strict socialist society. In the 2000’s, the author Julia Franck—born in East Berlin—also dealt with the subject.
Music.
In the early 1700’s, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel established Germany’s great tradition of music. Later in the 1700’s, one of the foremost musical geniuses of all time, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, carried on this tradition in Austria, which was historically connected to the other German states.
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In the early 1800’s, Ludwig van Beethoven created new and powerful forms of symphonic expression. Felix Mendelssohn became the most famous composer of his time. Franz Schubert and Robert Schumann achieved greatness by composing Romantic German art songs called Lieder.
In the mid-1800’s, Richard Wagner established a new style in opera with his music dramas, which sought to combine music, poetry, and theatrical design. In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, Richard Strauss became known for his symphonic poems, operas, and songs. During the 1920’s, Kurt Weill broke new musical ground with his innovative music for the stage. Karlheinz Stockhausen was a pioneer of electronic music in the 1950’s. The German bands Can and Kraftwerk helped develop electronic dance music in the 1970’s.
Painting and sculpture.
German artists created some outstanding works during the Renaissance. Albrecht Dürer and Hans Holbein the Younger produced great paintings and engravings. They are especially famous for their portraits. Matthias Grünewald painted masterpieces of religious art, and the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider made beautiful woodcarvings.
In the early 1800’s, Caspar David Friedrich was an important Romantic painter. In the early 1900’s, Max Beckmann and other German painters developed the Expressionist style. They sought to express unconscious emotions and dreamlike states. In the late 1900’s, Anselm Kiefer and other painters created monumental works that tried to capture the painful memories of the Nazi past. Their paintings came to be referred to as Neoexpressionism.
Architecture.
During the Middle Ages, magnificent cathedrals in the Romanesque and Gothic styles were built in such cities as Bamberg, Cologne, Regensburg, Ulm, and Worms. In the 1700’s, German princes built palaces modeled on the magnificent French palace at Versailles. At the same time, Germans built great, ornate Baroque and Rococo churches, especially in the predominantly Roman Catholic southern German states.
During the 1800’s, such German architects as Friedrich Schinkel built museums and other public buildings in the Neoclassical style. From 1919 to 1933, Walter Gropius and his Bauhaus art school and movement developed a basic style of modern architecture and design that emphasized simple forms and functionality.
Motion pictures.
The German film industry achieved its first period of success from the end of World War I in 1918 to the rise of the Nazi dictatorship in 1933. During the 1920’s and early 1930’s, German filmmakers placed an emphasis on fantasy and legend, as well as intense psychological realism. German filmmakers often treated themes in the cinematic version of Expressionism. Expressionist films used nonrealistic sets and unusual camera angles to represent a character’s inner feelings. Filmmakers created a threatening or eerie visual mood with light and shadow to accompany supernatural tales. Leading German directors of the time included Fritz Lang, F. W. Murnau, G. W. Pabst, and Robert Wiene. Lang’s science-fiction film Metropolis (1927) is considered an Expressionist masterpiece.
German cinema produced chiefly propaganda films during the Nazi years. The major movies included the documentaries Triumph of the Will (1935) and Olympia (1938), directed by Leni Riefenstahl. Many German film artists fled the country with the rise of the Nazis and moved to the United States.
The German film industry did not gain international recognition again until the 1960’s and 1970’s, primarily through the work of directors Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Werner Herzog, and Wim Wenders. After German unification in 1990, film directors such as Leander Haussmann and Wolfgang Becker dealt with life in the former East Germany. Today, many films are made at studios in Potsdam-Babelsberg. The Berlin International Film Festival (also known as the Berlinale) and other film festivals attract thousands of movie lovers each year.
The land
Germany has a varied landscape made up of five main regions. From north to south, they are (1) the North German Plain, (2) the Central Uplands, (3) the South German Hills, (4) the Black Forest, and (5) the Bavarian Alps.
The North German Plain,
the largest land region in Germany, is low, broad, and flat. Also called the Lowlands, the region is drained by wide rivers that flow northward into the North or Baltic seas. These rivers include the Elbe, Ems, Oder, Rhine, and Weser, all of which are important commercial waterways. Major ports and industrial centers in this region include Hamburg, Hanover, Kiel, and Magdeburg.
The wide river valleys, as well as land along the seacoasts, have soft, fertile soil. Between the river valleys are large areas covered with sand and gravel. These areas are called heathlands. The sand and gravel were deposited by glaciers that moved across much of Europe thousands of years ago. The glaciers also formed many small lakes in the North German Plain. The soil of the heathlands is not suitable for farming, and trees have been planted in many of them to provide timber. 
The southern edge of the North German Plain has highly fertile, dustlike soil called loess. This area is heavily cultivated and thickly populated. It has many of Germany’s oldest cities, including Bonn and Cologne.
The Central Uplands
are a series of plateaus that range from nearly flat to mountainous. Plateaus in the Harz Mountains and the Thuringian Forest have peaks that rise more than 3,000 feet (910 meters). Rivers in the Central Uplands have cut steep, narrow valleys. These rugged gorges, especially that of the Rhine River, are among the most beautiful sights in Germany.
The South German Hills
include a series of long, parallel ridges, called escarpments, that extend from southwest to northeast. Sheep are raised on these rocky ridges. Lowlands between the ridges have fertile clay soil. Some of these lowlands are among the best farmlands in Germany. Most of the South German Hills rise from 500 to 2,500 feet (150 to 762 meters). Much of the region is drained by the Rhine River and two of its branches, the Main and Neckar rivers. The Danube River drains the southern part. The Danube is the only major river in Germany that flows eastward.
The Black Forest
is a mountainous region. Its name comes from the thick forests of dark fir and spruce trees that cover the mountainsides. The region consists of granite and sandstone uplands with deep, narrow valleys. It averages from 2,500 to 3,000 feet (762 to 910 meters) above sea level. Some peaks rise more than 4,000 feet (1,200 meters). The Black Forest is the setting of many old German legends and fairy tales. It is also known for its mineral springs.
The Bavarian Alps
are part of the Alps, the largest mountain system in Europe. The majestic, snow-capped Bavarian Alps rise more than 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The highest point in Germany, the 9,721-foot (2,963-meter) peak Zugspitze, is in this region. The beauty of the Bavarian Alps has made them a year-round vacationland.
Climate
Most of Germany has a moderate climate. The northern coastal regions have a mild maritime climate. In winter, the sea is not as cold as the land. In summer, it is not as warm. As a result, west winds from the sea help warm the coastal regions in winter and cool them in summer. The southern alpine regions have a mountain climate with colder temperatures and more precipitation. 
The average temperature in January, the coldest month in Germany, is 35° F (1.6 ° C) in the north and 28° Fahrenheit (- 2° C) in the south. Cold winds from eastern Europe sometimes reach Germany in winter, and the temperature may drop sharply for short periods. In July, the hottest month in Germany, the temperature averages 61° to 64° F (16 ° to 18° C) in the north and 67° F (19.4° C) in the south.
Economy
In 1945, at the end of World War II, Germany’s economy lay in almost total ruin. The controlling Allied powers had to rebuild both West and East Germany. The West German economy recovered at an amazing rate in the 1950’s. This recovery is described as West Germany’s “economic miracle,” or Wirtschaftswunder. 
In East Germany, the Soviet Union set up a strong Communist state in which the government controlled the economy, including production, distribution, and pricing of almost all goods. Under this system, East Germany grew to be one of the wealthiest Communist countries, though it lagged well behind West Germany. 
In 1989, popular protests forced the government of East Germany to make political and economic reforms. As part of these reforms, free, multiparty elections were held in 1990. East German voters elected officials who favored unification with West Germany.
One of the first steps toward the unification of East Germany and West Germany was the union of the two economies. Economic unification began on July 1, 1990. East Germany adopted West Germany’s currency and began to operate under a free enterprise system.
After unification, Germany remained a member of the European Community (EC), an economic association of European nations. In the 1950’s, West Germany had helped found several European economic groups that had become the basis for the EC. The EC helped strengthen Germany’s economy through increased trade with other member nations of the association. In 1993, the EC became incorporated into the European Union (EU), which works for both economic and political cooperation among its member nations.
Today, Germany is Europe’s largest economy and uses the common European exchange currency called the euro. Economic challenges include an aging population and unemployment, especially in the former East Germany.
Manufacturing
is the foundation of Germany’s economic strength. Germany has several major manufacturing regions, and there are factories almost everywhere. The Ruhr is the most important industrial region and one of the busiest in the world. Long known for coal mining and steel production, the Ruhr has also become the heart of Germany’s high-technology industry. High-technology companies have spread to many other parts of Germany as well, including Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig, and Munich. Automobile manufacturing is a major industry in such cities as Cologne and Stuttgart. Hamburg is a key producer of aircraft and ships, and Frankfurt has long been an important financial center.
The renewable energy industry is important to the German economy. Other key industries include the production of cement, chemicals, electronics, machinery, metals, processed foods, rubber and plastics products, and textiles. Books are another important German product.
Service industries
provide services rather than produce goods. Service industries account for the majority of both Germany’s employment and its gross domestic product (GDP)—the total value of all goods and services produced within a country in a year. Leading service industries in Germany include finance, insurance, real estate, and business services, as well as hotels, restaurants, and retail shops.
Agriculture.
Germany is among the top agricultural producers in the European Union. More than half of Germany’s land is used for agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Important crops include barley, potatoes, rye, sugar beets, and wheat. Farmers also grow apples, cabbage, corn, and hops. Fine wines are made from grapes grown in vineyards along the Rhine and Moselle (or Mosel) rivers. Livestock and livestock products are also important sources of farm income. Farmers raise beef and dairy cattle, hogs, poultry, and sheep. Pork is the traditionally preferred meat in Germany. Organic agriculture (the growing or raising of food using little or no synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or other artificial chemicals) increased in popularity in the early 2000’s.
Mining.
Germany is a leading producer of potash and salt. Other mineral resources include coal, copper, and iron ore. In the 1800’s, coal deposits near the Ruhr River helped German industries grow. But by the 1970’s, most of the high-quality deposits had been exhausted. Germany is a leading producer of a low-quality brown coal called lignite. Natural gas and oil deposits are found in Lower Saxony in the North Sea.
International trade.
Germany is one of the world’s leading trading nations. Major exports include automobiles, chemicals, electronics, machinery, and other manufactured goods. International trade shows take place throughout Germany. The Nuremberg International Toy Fair and the CeBIT Information Technology Fair in Hanover are two of the largest. Annual international book fairs also bring thousands of buyers and sellers to Frankfurt, Leipzig, and other cities.
Germany exports more than it imports. Beyond the European Union, Germany’s most important trading partners are China and the United States.
Energy sources.
Germany uses fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and renewable energy sources to generate its electric power. Since the late 1900’s, the use of renewable sources (mainly sun, wind, and moving water) has greatly increased. Coal was long the main source of electric power, but its use is in decline. The German government’s “energy transformation” policy, or Energiewende, stresses energy conservation and a reduction in the use of fossil fuels. The country closed its remaining nuclear power plants in 2023.
Transportation.
Railways and highways connect all parts of Germany. Germany has one of the most extensive and efficient railroad networks in the world, providing passenger and freight service. A network of four-lane roads called the Autobahn makes up much of the massive highway system.
The Rhine River and its branches carry more traffic than any other European river system. Canals connect the major rivers of Germany. Chief seaports include Bremen, Bremerhaven, Hamburg, Rostock, and Wilhelmshaven.
Germany’s largest airline, Lufthansa, is a major international carrier. Frankfurt am Main has one of the world’s busiest international airports. Other major international airports operate at Berlin, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Munich, and Stuttgart.
Communication.
Germany has numerous regional and daily newspapers including Die Welt, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, and Süddeutsche Zeitung. Die Zeit is a leading weekly newspaper that reviews political events and public affairs. The major publishers also have social media and networking sites and produce digital editions that can be downloaded or read online. Many general interest magazines and trade journals are published in Germany as well.
Germany has advanced telecommunications systems, and cellular telephone service is widely available. The country also has a variety of television, radio, and Internet options. Deutsche Welle, Germany’s international radio and television broadcaster, is financed by tax revenue and broadcasts in some 30 languages.
History
Ancient times.
Fossils discovered in what is now Germany indicate that the area was home to primitive human beings as early as 500,000 years ago. The Neandertal (also spelled Neanderthal) people lived throughout Europe from about 150,000 to 39,000 years ago. They are named for Germany’s Neander Valley, near Düsseldorf, where their remains were first discovered in 1856.
The history of the German people began sometime after 1000 B.C. when tribes began migrating from northern Europe into what is now Germany. These tribes lived by hunting and farming. In the 100’s B.C., they moved south to the Rhine and Danube rivers, the northern frontiers of the Roman Empire. The Romans called the tribes Germani, though that was the name of only one tribe. Other tribes included the Alemanni, Cimbri, Franks, Frisians, Saxons, and Suebi. The Romans called the land of the tribes Germania.
The Romans tried to conquer the tribes, but Germanic warriors crushed the Roman forces in the decisive Battle of Teutoburg Forest in A.D. 9. The Romans then built a wall, called the limes, between the Rhine and Danube rivers to protect their lands from Germanic attacks. The Roman-Germanic frontier, or Limes Germanicus became an area of cultural exchange, but Roman power began to collapse in the late 300’s. In the 400’s, Germanic tribes moved south, plundered Rome, and eventually broke up the western portion of the empire into tribal kingdoms. The kingdom of the Franks became the largest and most important.
Kingdom of the Franks.
In 486, Clovis, a Frankish king, defeated the independent Roman governor of Gaul (now mainly France). Clovis extended the boundaries of his territory by defeating other Germanic tribes in Gaul and parts of what is now western Germany. He later became a Christian and introduced Roman ways of life into his kingdom. The greatest Frankish ruler, Charlemagne, came to power in 768. Known to the Germans as Karl der Grosse, he established his capital in Aachen. Charlemagne expanded his kingdom east to the Elbe River and beyond. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned him emperor of the Romans. Charlemagne died in 814.
The breakup of Charlemagne’s empire.
In 843, the Treaty of Verdun divided Charlemagne’s empire into three kingdoms, one for each of his grandsons. Louis II (called the German) received lands east of the Rhine River, most of which later became Germany. The western part, later called France, went to Charles II (the Bald). Lothair I received the middle kingdom, a narrow strip that extended from the North Sea to central Italy. He also kept the title of emperor.
In 911, the German branch of the Frankish royal family died out. By then, the German kingdom had been divided into five powerful duchies (territories ruled by a duke)—Bavaria, Lorraine, Franconia, Saxony, and Swabia. The dukes elected Conrad I of Franconia as king. In 919, Henry I (the Fowler) of Saxony succeeded Conrad, and his family ruled until 1024. The founding of the Saxon dynasty (series of rulers from the same family) permanently separated the lands given to Louis II from the French parts of Charlemagne’s empire.
Henry’s son, Otto I (the Great), drove invading Magyars (Hungarians) out of southern Germany in 955 and extended the German frontier in the north. Otto also won control over most of the old middle Frankish kingdom, including Italy. In 962, Pope John XII crowned Otto emperor in Rome. This marked the beginning of what later was called the Holy Roman Empire.
The Holy Roman Empire.
Under the Saxon emperors, the Holy Roman Empire was a powerful combination of territories, each with a separate ruler. The Salian dynasty (1024-1125) included several strong emperors. The emperors relied heavily on the bishops responsible for church lands within the empire to offset the power of the nobles and help administer the government. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII disputed the right of Emperor Henry IV to appoint bishops. Many German nobles sided with the pope, and a series of civil wars began.
The Hohenstaufen emperors (1138-1254) reestablished order. However, their preoccupation with developing a stronger hold in Italy led to further conflict with the popes. It also allowed German nobles and cities to assert greater independence from the emperor’s central authority.
Disorder returned in the mid-1200’s. The German nobles were unable to agree on a new choice for emperor from 1254 until they finally elected Rudolf I of Habsburg (or Hapsburg) in 1273. Rudolf seized Austria and made it the Habsburg power base. After Rudolf, emperors of various families reigned. In 1356, Emperor Charles IV issued the Golden Bull, a document that officially recognized seven powerful rulers of territories in the empire as electors—princely rulers responsible for electing the Holy Roman emperors. Starting in 1438, members of the Habsburg family reigned almost continuously until 1806.
The Holy Roman Empire was never fully a German territory. It extended into parts of Italy and eastern Europe and long included what are now Belgium and the Netherlands. Some emperors also controlled additional, independent territories. However, the German territories came to be seen as the core of the empire. From 1512, the empire was officially known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
The rise of cities.
Before the fall of the West Roman Empire in 476, Roman towns stood along and near the Rhine and Danube rivers. These towns were centers of trade. They included what are now Bonn, Cologne, Regensburg, Trier, and Vienna. After the fall of Rome, trade became more local and some towns declined. Trade increased under the Saxon and Salian emperors. Some old towns grew, and new ones sometimes appeared around the castles of princes and bishops. Many cities became so large and rich that they gained self-rule.
When the emperors began losing power, the cities could not rely on outside help in case of attack. The more prosperous cities banded together into leagues and formed their own armies for protection. The strongest league was the Hanseatic League, which began to develop in the late 1100’s. It included Cologne, Dortmund, and the major ports of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck. The league became a commercial and naval power in the North and Baltic seas during the 1300’s.
Serfdom in German lands
By the 700’s, most peasant farmers in western German lands had become serfs. Each serf worked on land that was owned by a powerful person or by the church. In return for their work, the serfs received protection and a share of the harvest. Generally, serfs were not free to leave the land they worked. In western German lands, serfdom gradually died out as peasants were allowed to substitute monetary payments for labor. In eastern German lands, serfdom lasted from the 1300’s until the early 1800’s.
The Reformation.
In 1517, Martin Luther, a German monk, began to attack many teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Nobles, peasants, and townspeople joined this movement, called the Reformation, and it spread quickly. Its followers became known as Protestants, meaning those who protest. Eventually, a number of Protestant groups emerged.
Some princes were sincere reformers, but others became Protestants to gain church property. Many peasants hoped the Protestant movement would free them from their lord’s control. Peasants revolted against the lords in the Peasants’ War of 1524-1525, but they were brutally crushed.
Neither the pope nor Emperor Charles V could stop the Protestant movement. In 1555, Protestant princes forced Charles to accept the Peace of Augsburg. This treaty gave each Lutheran Protestant and Roman Catholic prince the right to choose the religion for his own land. It also established a division of church lands between the two religions.
During the 1500’s and 1600’s, the Roman Catholic Church underwent its own reform, called the Counter Reformation or Catholic Reformation. In this movement, the church won back many Protestants by peaceful means or by force. By 1600, relatively few Protestants were left in Austria, Bavaria, and parts of Bohemia and the Rhineland. The rest of Germany remained primarily Lutheran.
The Thirty Years’ War.
By 1600, the German lands were divided by many political and religious rivalries. In 1618, a Protestant revolt in Bohemia set off a series of wars that lasted for 30 years. The wars were partially religious struggles between Protestants and Catholics, but they were also political struggles between certain princes and the emperor. In addition, the kings of Denmark, Sweden, and France entered the wars to gain German lands and to reduce the Habsburgs’ power.
The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648. Under this treaty, France and Sweden received some German lands. The wars had been hard on German trade and farming. Large parts of Germany were ruined, and some of the towns had nearly disappeared. The emperor’s already limited power had been further weakened by the wars. Germany was a collection of free cities and hundreds of states.
The rise of Prussia.
In the 1600’s, the Hohenzollern family began expanding its power in the eastern German lands. The Hohenzollerns ruled the state of Brandenburg. Berlin was their capital. In 1618, the ruler of Brandenburg inherited the duchy of Prussia. The Peace of Westphalia added part of Pomerania and some territories on the lower Rhine River to the Hohenzollern holdings.
The Hohenzollerns’ rise to power began with Frederick William (the Great Elector), who became ruler of Brandenburg in 1640. He began to unite and expand his lands after the Thirty Years’ War. In 1701, his son Frederick became the first king of Prussia. The Hohenzollerns’ power continued to grow under the next two kings, Frederick William I and Frederick II (the Great).
The Hohenzollerns built a large, well-trained professional army and a strong civil service to defend and rule their scattered territories. Through their civil service, they improved farming and industry, and filled their treasury with tax money. They built canals, schools, and roads, and promoted the arts and learning.
After Frederick the Great became king in 1740, he seized most of Silesia, a rich province of Austria. This invasion led to fighting between Prussia and Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). Many other nations fought in these wars as well. Some sided with Frederick, and others with his enemy, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. Under the final peace treaty, nearly all of Silesia remained under Prussian rule.
During the 1770’s, Prussia, along with Austria and Russia, began to seize parts of Poland. By the end of 1795, Poland had been divided among these states.
Conflicts with France.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, caused many changes throughout Europe. France built huge, new citizen armies. Germany’s old-fashioned professional armies were not prepared for the new age.
From 1792 until 1815, France was almost continually at war with other European states. Much of the fighting involved German states and took place on German soil. By the end of 1806, Napoleon I (also called Napoleon Bonaparte), who had seized control of France in 1799, had taken parts of western Germany, set up dependent states, and destroyed the Holy Roman Empire. Some German states became members of the Confederation of the Rhine, which Napoleon established in 1806.
Between 1795 and 1806, Prussia stayed out of the wars. But Napoleon’s threats became too great. In 1806, Prussia declared war on France. Napoleon’s troops defeated the Prussian army at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt (also spelled Auerstädt) that same year. As a result, Prussia lost its territories west of the Elbe River and had to pay war damages to France. To recover from this defeat, the Prussian government introduced reforms, including laws that freed the serfs and gave some self-rule to the cities. In the army, reformers fired incompetent officrs and improved military training.
After the failure of Napoleon’s Russian campaign in 1812, Austria, the United Kingdom, Prussia, and Russia joined to fight against him. The reformed Prussian army helped defeat Napoleon at Leipzig in 1813 and at Waterloo in 1815.
The Congress of Vienna.
The victorious powers met in Vienna from late 1814 to early 1815 to restore order to Europe. They left intact most of the smaller states created in the Confederation of the Rhine. But their treaty divided the rest of Napoleon’s lands among themselves. Prussia received lands including the Rhineland, Westphalia, and much of Saxony, greatly increasing its power in northern and western Germany. Austria gave up its territories in southern Germany and the lands that are now Belgium and Luxembourg, and it took territories in Italy. Austria, Prussia, and Russia again divided Poland.
The German Confederation.
The Congress of Vienna also set up the German Confederation, an association of 39 independent states. Except for four self-governing cities, kings or princes ruled the German states. Each state had its own laws, collected its own taxes, and was responsible for its own defense. Several states had constitutions and parliaments, but ordinary people had little voice in their government.
During the early 1800’s, the German population outgrew the economy. Some regions prospered, but most areas remained poor. Cities were small, and most people still lived by farming. In the 1840’s, popular discontent increased. Business and professional people wanted more opportunities for political involvement. Farmers and tradespeople suffered from poor harvests and economic depression.
Revolution.
In 1848, a series of uprisings erupted in Europe. In France, the people forced the king to abdicate (give up the throne). In the Austrian Empire, people rioted in Vienna, and Hungarian, Czech, and Italian nationalists rebelled against Austrian authority. The revolutionary fever spread, and liberal uprisings swept through the German Confederation. Workers in German cities demanded social reform and a more democratic government. With high hopes, an elected assembly met in Frankfurt to create a unified German nation.
The revolutions of 1848 quickly failed. In France, an emperor replaced the king. In Austria, troops crushed the nationalist uprisings. In Germany, too, troops clashed with protesters, and many people were killed. Many other people fled the country. Hopes of democracy were quickly dashed. The Frankfurt Assembly was dissolved, and monarchs tightened their control of Prussia and the major German states.
The unification of Germany.
In the early 1860’s, conflict over army reforms caused a constitutional crisis in Prussia. The Prussian king, Wilhelm I, appointed Otto von Bismarck prime minister in 1862. Bismarck hoped he could resolve the constitutional crisis with foreign triumphs. He also wanted to establish Prussia as the leading German power.
In 1864, Austria and Prussia, in the name of the German Confederation, took the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark. Bismarck then turned on Austria. His army easily defeated the Austrians at the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz in the Seven Weeks’ War. Bismarck then dissolved the German Confederation and established the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership. The four German states south of the Main River remained independent, but they made military alliances with Prussia. Austria’s defeat left it greatly weakened. In 1867, the Austrian emperor was forced to give equal status to his Hungarian holdings, creating the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.
To complete the unification of Germany, Bismarck had to overcome the opposition of France. In 1870, he encouraged a Hohenzollern prince to accept the throne of Spain. As Bismarck expected, France objected. Although the prince withdrew as a candidate, Bismarck used the dispute to start the Franco-Prussian War. This conflict pitted France against the North German Confederation and its south German allies. After several battles, the Germans defeated the main French armies at Sedan in September 1870. The German army captured Paris in January 1871. Under the peace treaty, France gave up almost all of Alsace and part of Lorraine.
During the Franco-Prussian War, the four south German states agreed to join a united German nation under Prussian leadership. On Jan. 18, 1871, Wilhelm I was crowned the first Kaiser (emperor) of the new German Empire. Wilhelm appointed Bismarck chancellor and head of government.
The German Empire.
The German constitution provided for a two-house parliament. Members of one house, the Reichstag, were elected by the people. Members of the other house, the Bundesrat, were appointed by the state governments. The empire had 26 member states. Most states were small, and several were completely surrounded by Prussia. The emperor, who was also the king of Prussia, controlled foreign policy, commanded the army, and appointed the chancellor. The parliament approved all laws and taxes, but could not force the chancellor to resign.
Bismarck allowed all men over 25 to vote, thinking that most Germans would support the government. He won support from the growing class of business people and the traditional Prussian landowners and nobles. But Bismarck faced bitter opposition from Roman Catholics and Socialists. Catholics did not trust the Protestant-led empire and organized their own political party. Socialism was growing popular among city dwellers and workers in developing industries. Bismarck tried to wreck the Catholic and Socialist parties, but failed.
Foreign policy.
Bismarck feared a combined attack from east and west. He tried to keep Germany allied with Russia and Austria-Hungary so they would not form alliances with France. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia formed a loose alliance in 1873, but it soon ended because of disagreement over the Balkans, a group of countries in the southeast corner of Europe. In 1879, Bismarck established a new alliance with Austria-Hungary. Italy joined in 1882, creating the so-called Triple Alliance. During the 1880’s, Germany also established colonies in Africa and on islands in the Pacific Ocean.
In 1888, Wilhelm I died. His terminally ill son Frederick III succeeded him, but soon died. The crown then passed to Frederick’s son, Wilhelm II, who was eager to establish his own authority. In 1890, he forced Bismarck to resign. Wilhelm wanted Germany to have more influence throughout the world. He also wanted a modern navy to defend German interests and challenge British naval supremacy.
In 1894, to counteract Wilhelm’s aggressive ambitions, Russia allied itself with France. The United Kingdom felt its control of the seas threatened and established the Entente Cordiale (cordial understanding) with France in 1904. In 1907, the United Kingdom and Russia signed a similar agreement. Under these agreements, the three countries formed the Triple Entente. Europe was divided into two armed camps, with the Triple Alliance on one side and the Triple Entente on the other.
World War I
started in the Balkans. On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife were murdered in Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina. Bosnia-Herzegovina was an Austrian territory also claimed by Serbia, a small Balkan country where the assassination had been planned. With Germany’s support, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia prepared for war to support Serbia. Germany then declared war on Russia. After France called up its troops to support Russia, Germany went to war against France. In an effort to reach Paris quickly, German troops invaded neutral Belgium. The United Kingdom then declared war on Germany. 
Germany won the opening battles of the war, but the United Kingdom, France, and Russia continued to fight. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and their allies were called the Central Powers. The nations opposing them were called the Allies. As the war dragged on, other countries became involved. Almost all of them joined the Allies. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies, hoping to gain Austrian land. In 1917, the United States entered the war on the Allied side.
Despite the size and strength of the Allies, Germany seemed close to winning the war. After 1914, German troops held Luxembourg, most of Belgium, and part of northern France. In 1917, Germany won on the Eastern Front as the Russian war effort collapsed. Germany’s armies, however, were soon exhausted. Supplies were running low and there was social unrest at home. An increasing number of fresh American troops arrived to reinforce the Allies. By the autumn of 1918, German forces were falling back all along the Western Front. On November 11, Germany signed an armistice (agreement to stop fighting), ending World War I.
After the war, the Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to give up its colonies and some of its European territory. Alsace and the German part of Lorraine were returned to France. Poland was reestablished, and it received Posen (now Poznan), some of Silesia, and part of West Prussia. France got control of the Saar region for 15 years. The treaty also placed the Rhineland under Allied occupation for 15 years. Germany’s army was reduced to 100,000 men, and the nation was forbidden from having an air force. Germany was also required to pay the Allies reparations (payments for war damages), which were later set at about $33 billion. 
The Weimar Republic.
Late in World War I, German workers and troops had revolted in protest against continuing the war. This revolution began in Kiel, and spread quickly from city to city. On Nov. 9, 1918, Germany was declared a republic. Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to the Netherlands.
In January 1919, German voters—now including women—elected a national assembly to create a constitution. The assembly met in Weimar, and the new republic became known as the Weimar Republic. The constitution established a democratic federal republic in August 1919. It provided for a parliament of two houses—the Reichstag and the Reichsrat—and a president elected by the people. The president appointed the chancellor and the cabinet members, but they could be removed from office by the Reichstag.
The Weimar Republic was weak from the start. Many important Germans remained loyal to the empire. German army officers claimed that Germany had been defeated by unrest at home, not by Allied armies. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were harsher than the Germans had expected, and many saw it as an injustice.
In 1922 and 1923, inflation ruined the value of German money, and the economy collapsed. Communists rebelled in some areas. In Munich, the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, known as the Nazi Party, launched a rebellion under its leader, Adolf Hitler. The rebellion failed, and Hitler was briefly imprisoned.
Gustav Stresemann became chancellor and then foreign minister. Under his leadership, order was restored. A new money system was set up to curb inflation. In 1924, the Allies made it easier for Germany to pay its reparations. At the Locarno Conference in 1925, Stresemann signed a security pact with France and Belgium. The pact was also guaranteed by the United Kingdom and Italy.
For a few years, the Weimar Republic was prosperous and stable. In 1929, however, the Great Depression —a worldwide economic slump—darkened the republic’s prospects. Millions of Germans lost their jobs. The government appeared powerless, and political violence increased. Voters increasingly supported radical groups—particularly the Nazis. Many Germans were attracted by Hitler’s promises to improve the economy, defy the Treaty of Versailles, and rebuild Germany’s military. In 1932, the Nazi Party emerged as the Reichstag’s strongest party. In 1933, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor.
Nazi Germany.
As chancellor, Hitler began to destroy the constitution and build a dictatorship. He permitted only one political party—the Nazis. The party seized control of the nation’s courts, newspapers, police, and schools. People who opposed the government were murdered, imprisoned in concentration camps , forced to leave Germany, or beaten up. After Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler declared himself der Führer (the Leader) of Germany. The Nazis called their government the Third Reich (Third Empire). The first was the Holy Roman Empire, and the second was the German Empire.
Many Germans approved of Nazism. Others objected to some of the Nazi ideas, but supported Hitler’s efforts to improve the economy and rebuild the military. Some Germans opposed Hitler but remained silent. Only a few resisted.
Hitler wanted to assert German superiority over what he believed to be inferior races, including Jews, Slavs, and other non-German peoples. He also wanted to gain territory, or Lebensraum (living space), for Germany, especially in eastern Europe. In 1933, Hitler removed all German Jews from government jobs. In 1935, he took away the rights of Jewish citizens. On the night of Nov. 9-10, 1938, Nazi crowds burned down synagogues, at tacked Jews, and broke windows of Jewish businesses. The event became known as Kristallnacht, or the “Night of Broken Glass.”
At the same time Hitler was acting against the Jews, he was also preparing for war. In 1936, German troops reoccupied the Rhineland. Also in 1936, Germany formed an alliance with Italy and signed an anti-Communist agreement with Japan. The three countries became known as the Axis powers. In March 1938, Germany occupied Austria and made it part of the Third Reich. In September, the United Kingdom and France allowed Hitler to take over the German-speaking areas of Czechoslovakia. The next year, Germany seized the rest of Czechoslovakia.
In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union (which had been formed under Russia’s leadership in 1922 and existed until 1991) agreed to remain neutral if the other became involved in a war. They also secretly planned to divide Poland and much of the rest of eastern Europe between themselves. On September 1, Germany invaded Poland and World War II began.
World War II.
On Sept. 3, 1939, the United Kingdom and France responded to the invasion of Poland by declaring war on Germany. Poland fell quickly under German, and later, Soviet attacks. In the spring of 1940, German forces took Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg. The Allied forces had been unprepared for Germany’s Blitzkrieg (lightning war) methods. Hitler used fast-moving tanks and infantry supported by dive bombers.
In May 1940, the German army moved around France’s eastern defenses and overwhelmed the French army. France fell by the end of June. The German advance stopped at the English Channel. After a series of air battles over the United Kingdom in the summer and fall of 1940, the Germans failed to gain the air superiority they needed to invade England. Hitler now turned to the east and the south. He conquered the Balkans, occupied Crete, and sent an army to northern Africa. In June 1941, a huge German force invaded the Soviet Union and advanced into Soviet territory.
At the end of 1941, Nazi Germany dominated the continent. Hitler used his power as proof of his theory that the Germans belonged to an Aryan “master race.” The Nazis ruthlessly murdered about 6 million European Jews and millions of others they deemed “unworthy of life.” These people included the disabled, homosexuals, Communists and other political opponents, Poles, and Roma and Sinti (sometimes called Gypsies). Many of these people died in Nazi concentration camps.
Despite his army’s initial success, Hitler could not defeat the Soviet Union. Japan’s surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on Dec. 7, 1941, brought the United States into the war. The tide turned against Germany in 1943. The Soviets counterattacked in the east. American and British troops drove the Germans out of North Africa and invaded Italy from the south. In June 1944, the Allies invaded France. After the failure of the last German offensive in December 1944, Allied troops poured into Germany. On April 30, 1945, as Soviet troops closed in on Berlin from the east, Hitler committed suicide. Germany surrendered on May 7.
Occupied Germany.
The war left most of Germany in ruins. The Allied bombing and invasion had destroyed cities, farms, industries, and transportation. Supplies of food, fuel, and water were extremely low. People were starving, and many lived in ruined buildings.
In June 1945, the Allied Big Four—the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States—officially took over authority in Germany. The country was divided into four zones of military occupation, with each power occupying a zone. Berlin, located deep in the Soviet zone, was also divided into four sectors.
In July and August 1945, leaders of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States met in Potsdam, Germany. They agreed to govern Germany together and to rebuild it as a democracy. They also agreed to stamp out Nazism and to settle German refugees from eastern Europe in Germany. Under the agreement, the Soviet Union also was granted northern East Prussia, which it claimed. The rest of that region, and German territory east of the Oder and Neisse rivers, were placed under Polish control. As a result, Germany lost about a fourth of its land.
Many high-ranking Nazi leaders committed suicide or disappeared. The Allies brought to trial those remaining. A number of these Nazis were hanged or imprisoned. The most important trials took place in Nuremberg.
The division of Germany.
Almost immediately after their victory, the Allies began to quarrel among themselves. The Soviet Union began to establish Communist governments in the Eastern European countries its army had occupied at the end of the war. The Western powers tried to block Communist expansion in the areas under their control. The Soviets imposed barriers against communication, trade, and travel between East and West. Extreme mistrust and tension grew on each side, a condition that came to be called the Cold War.
The Cold War affected Germany immediately. When the Soviet Union and the Western Allies could not agree on a common policy in Germany, each side organized occupation zones in Germany and in Berlin. The Western Allies occupied western Germany, and the Soviet Union occupied the east. Berlin was divided into Allied-occupied West Berlin and Soviet-occupied East Berlin. The United Kingdom, France, and the United States combined the economies of the zones they controlled and prepared to unite the zones politically. The Soviet Union imposed Communist rule on its zone.
In June 1948, the Western Allies began rebuilding the economy of their occupation zones in Germany. They reorganized the German monetary system and issued new money, replacing the virtually worthless existing currency. Under a program known as the Marshall Plan, U.S. aid began to pour into the Western Allied zones, and economic recovery got underway. The Soviets tried to force the Allies out of Berlin by stopping all highway, rail, and water travel between the city and western Germany. However, the Allies set up the huge Berlin Airlift and flew about 8,000 tons (7,300 metric tons) of supplies into the city every day. The Soviet Union lifted the failed blockade in May 1949.
West Germany.
As the division between the Eastern and Western zones grew, the Allies arranged for a German council to write a constitution. The Allies approved the written constitution in May 1949. On Sept. 21, 1949, the Western zones were officially combined as the Federal Republic of Germany (also called West Germany).
The new West German parliament met for the first time in Bonn, the country’s capital, in September 1949. It elected Konrad Adenauer chancellor. Under Adenauer, West Germany helped found the Council of Europe and several organizations that eventually became the European Community (EC), an economic association. The EC was later incorporated into the European Union. In 1955, West Germany joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and began to establish its armed forces.
By 1955, West Germany had made an amazing economic recovery. The value of goods produced there was greater than that for all Germany in 1936. This “economic miracle” helped West Germany absorb more than 10 million refugees from Eastern Europe and more than a million workers from the rest of Europe.
West Germany’s prosperity helped the republic gain the support of its citizens. Adenauer, a strong leader, retired in 1963. Ludwig Erhard succeeded him as chancellor and served until 1966. Kurt Georg Kiesinger was chancellor from 1966 to 1969. Adenauer, Erhard, and Kiesinger were members of a political party called the Christian Democratic Union (CDU).
Willy Brandt of the Social Democratic Party, who had been vice chancellor since 1966, became chancellor in 1969. Helmut Schmidt, also a Social Democrat, succeeded Brandt and remained in office until 1982. CDU leader Helmut Kohl then became the last chancellor of West Germany.
In the 1980’s, many Germans, especially the country’s young people, expressed concern for the environment and opposition to the placement of U.S. nuclear missiles in West Germany. Mass protests occurred. The Green party, an organization devoted to environmental issues, gained popularity.
East Germany.
After World War II, the Soviet Union appointed German Communists to local offices and set up a Soviet-style system. Banks, farms, and industries were seized and reorganized. People suspected of opposing Communism were thrown into prison camps. In 1946, the Communists forced the Social Democratic Party to join them in forming the Socialist Unity Party. The party came under control of the Communist leader Walter Ulbricht. Ulbricht became first secretary of the Socialist Unity Party. The first secretary (later general secretary) was the most powerful leader in East Germany.
A Communist-prepared constitution was adopted in May 1949. On October 7, the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (commonly called East Germany), with East Berlin as its capital. Ulbricht held the real power, though he did not head the government. In October 1955, East Germany became officially independent, but Soviet influence continued. Also in 1955, East Germany joined the Warsaw Pact, an Eastern European military alliance under Soviet command.
The East German economy recovered gradually after 1945, but the standard of living remained much lower than West Germany’s. In 1953, Ulbricht tried to increase working hours without raising wages. In June, strikes and riots led to an antigovernment uprising in East Berlin and many other cities. Soviet tanks and troops violently suppressed the revolt. Living and working conditions slowly improved, but many people remained dissatisfied. Every week, thousands of East Germans fled to West Germany. Almost 3 million East Germans left, and the labor force fell sharply. Most fled through Berlin.
Loading the player...Berlin Wall
In August 1961, the Communists built the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin. They also strengthened barriers around the rest of West Berlin and along the border between East and West Germany. From 1961 to 1989, hundreds of people died trying to escape from East Germany, including many who tried to cross the Berlin Wall.
In 1971, Ulbricht resigned as head of the Socialist Unity Party. Erich Honecker, a member of the party’s Central Committee, succeeded him. Under Honecker, East Germany improved its relations with many non-Communist nations. Before 1960, only the Soviet Union and several other Communist countries had diplomatic relations with East Germany. But eventually, East Germany established relations with other nations.
East Germany experienced major changes in 1989. In many Eastern European nations, people demonstrated against their Communist governments. Communist Hun gary removed its barriers on its border with non-Communist Austria. Thousands of East Germans went to Hungary, crossed into Austria, and then moved to West Germany.
Throughout East Germany, citizens protested for more freedom. In October, the growing pressure forced Honecker to resign as head of the party and from his government positions. In November 1990, the German government charged Honecker with manslaughter for ordering border guards to shoot East Germans trying to escape to West Germany during his leadership. Honecker became ill and died in 1994 while in exile in Chile.
In a dramatic change in policy, the East German government announced on Nov. 9, 1989, that it would open its borders and permit its citizens to travel freely. The opening of the Berlin Wall, long a symbol of the East German government’s control of its citizens, was part of this policy change. Once again, East Germans poured into West Germany. Protests continued as non-Communist political parties and organizations were started.
On March 18, 1990, East Germans voted in free parliamentary elections for the first time. The Christian Democratic Union, a non-Communist party, won the most seats in parliament. Together with the Social Democrats and some smaller parties, the CDU formed a government with Lothar de Maizière as its head. The Socialist Unity Party, which had been renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism, won only about 17 percent of the seats in the legislature.
The unification of East and West Germany.
With the move toward a more democratic government in East Germany, many people began to consider the idea of a unified Germany. In February 1990, East German leader Hans Modrow announced that he favored unification. In the March elections, most East Germans voted for candidates who favored rapid unification. Most West Germans also supported unification.
In mid-1990, East Germany began selling many government-owned businesses to private owners. In May, East Germany and West Germany signed a treaty providing for close economic cooperation. In July, the economies of East Germany and West Germany were united.
Economic unification had several results. Goods that had been scarce in East Germany became available. But the cost of many goods in the free market was higher than they had been when the government controlled prices. Many East German businesses found it difficult to operate without the government’s financial support. They closed or operated on shorter hours, which caused increased unemployment.
From May to September 1990, unification talks were held among the foreign ministers of the two German states and the four Allied powers of World War II—the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States. On September 12, the Allied powers agreed to give up their remaining occupation rights in Berlin and in East and West Germany. The agreement was called the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany. The treaty made German reunification possible.
On August 31, representatives of East and West Germany signed their treaty for unification. The treaty de tailed the major aspects of unification, including the merging of the social and legal systems. It took effect on Oct. 3, 1990, marking the official date for the unification of East and West Germany. Berlin was also unified and named the country’s capital, but the parliament and government remained in Bonn until 1999.
West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl continued to serve as chancellor of Germany. The first national elections of unified Germany were held in December 1990. As a result of the elections, Kohl remained chancellor, and his CDU-led coalition remained in power. Kohl’s coalition won again in 1994. In spite of Kohl’s election victories, dissatisfaction with his policies increased. In the former East Germany, people were disappointed at the slow rate of progress toward an improved economy. In the former West Germany, some people resented the cost of unification. Germany also faced growing unemployment, particularly in its industrial regions. Many Germans feared the government would be unable to support the country’s large social welfare budget.
Germany also experienced a wave of social unrest in the early 1990’s. Large numbers of immigrants had entered the country. Neo-Nazis and other right-wing Germans began to protest the increased immigration. Some of them attacked foreigners, resulting in a number of deaths. Many Germans protested these attacks. The unified German constitution had allowed any people who said they were fleeing persecution to enter the country. In 1993, the German parliament amended the constitution to reduce the entry of immigrants.
Recent developments.
In 1998, Kohl’s coalition was defeated after 16 years in power. Gerhard Schröder, of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), became Germany’s chancellor. He formed a new coalition, consisting of the Social Democratic and Green parties.
In 2005, the CDU and its Bavarian branch, the Christian Social Union (CSU), won more seats in Germany’s parliament than any other party, but not a majority of the seats. The CDU and the CSU then joined with the Social Democratic Party to form a government. The CDU’s Angela Merkel became chancellor, the first woman—and first former East German—to hold the post.
The Free Democratic Party replaced the Social Democrats in Merkel’s coalition government in 2009. Merkel’s CDU won elections again in 2013 and returned to a coalition government with the Social Democrats. Germany took the lead in 2015 during a refugee crisis driven largely by unrest in the Middle East, accepting some 1 million people. Following elections in 2017, Merkel’s CDU maintained control and formed another coalition government with the Social Democrats.
Beginning in 2020, Germany faced a public health crisis as a result of the spread of the respiratory disease COVID-19. The disease, caused by a type of coronavirus, emerged from China in late 2019. It soon spread to Italy and other countries in Europe. In March 2020, a number of German states restricted travel and limited business activity to combat the spread of the virus. Later in March, Merkel and the heads of all 16 states implemented strict social distancing rules. In the following months, the government increased or relaxed business and social restrictions based upon changes in infection rates. COVID-19 vaccines first became available to high-risk groups in late 2020. Vaccines were distributed to the general population during the first several months of 2021. By late spring, higher vaccination rates contributed to a sharp decline in infection and death rates. However, highly contagious variants of the virus continued to spread, leading to further outbreaks. By early 2023, about 38 million infections had been recorded in Germany, and nearly 170,000 Germans had died from the disease.
Elections for the Bundestag, or federal parliament, drew international attention in September 2021. Merkel, the longtime chancellor, did not seek reelection, and the elections were to determine a new chancellor. The Social Democrats and their leader Olaf Scholz won a narrow victory over Merkel’s Christian Democrats, but each party captured only about one-fourth of the total vote. Negotiations to form a coalition government concluded late in November, when the Social Democrats announced an agreement with the environmentalist Greens and the pro-business Free Democrats. Scholz succeeded Merkel as chancellor in December.
