Hebrew literature consists of stories, poems, religious studies, and other works written in Hebrew, one of the oldest living languages. The Hebrew Bible, which Christians call the Old Testament, is the greatest product of Hebrew literature. Through the centuries, many Hebrew works were written by Jews living in Europe. Today, Israeli writers produce most Hebrew literature.
Early works.
The first known works of literature written in Hebrew were Biblical poems. They include “The Song of Miriam” (Exodus 15:21), which may date from the early 1200’s B.C., and “The Song of Deborah” (Judges 5), composed in the 1100’s B.C.
The other major product of early Hebrew literature was the Mishnah, a written version of traditional Jewish oral law. The Mishnah, which was written down about A.D. 200, forms part of the Talmud. Next to the Bible, the Talmud is the most sacred book of the Jewish religion (see Talmud). By the 500’s, great verse prayers called piyyutim were being composed for religious services.
Medieval works.
During the Middle Ages, such travelers as Eldad Ha-Dani and Benjamin of Tudela wrote Hebrew accounts of their journeys. Yosippon (900’s) and other anonymous works combined Jewish history with legends. Such works of the 1100’s and 1200’s as the Book of Delight by Ibn Zabara and Tahkemoni by Judah Alharizi reflect migrations of Jews to many countries.
Scholars consider the period in Spain from the 900’s to the 1400’s to be a golden age of Hebrew literature. Great Hebrew poetry of the time included the religious poems of Solomon ibn Gabirol and Judah Halevi’s Songs of Zion. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides’s influential Guide for the Perplexed also appeared during this period. Originally written in Arabic, the book was quickly translated into Hebrew.
During the Middle Ages, the Jews suffered much persecution. Some Hebrew authors tried to understand Jewish suffering by examining the relationship between God and human beings. Much of the literature of these writers formed part of the Jewish mystical tradition called the Kabbalah. The Zohar (Book of Splendor), written partly in Hebrew, is the greatest work of Kabbalist literature. It was probably written in the late 1200’s by a Spanish Kabbalist named Moses de Leon.
Modern Hebrew literature,
according to many scholars, began with the Hebrew cultural and literary movement called the Haskalah (Enlightenment) in the late 1700’s. Followers of this movement encouraged Jews to abandon some traditional ways and to adopt aspects of modern Western culture. See Haskalah.
The first Hebrew novel, Love of Zion (1853), was written by Abraham Mapu. During the 1860’s and 1870’s, Yehudah Leib Gordon, Moshe Leib Lilienblum, and Peretz Smolenskin dominated Hebrew literature. Gordon wrote poetry on historical themes and on women’s rights and other issues. Lilienblum’s autobiography, Sins of Youth (1876), was widely read. Smolenskin was one of the first Hebrew writers to promote the idea that the Jews were a nation, not just a religious group.
Another great author of the late 1800’s was Shalom Jacob Abramovich, who wrote under the name of Mendele the Bookseller. Abramovich helped develop a modern Hebrew literary style that was precise and natural.
Starting in the 1880’s, Zionism, the idea of establishing a national Jewish state, became an important force in Hebrew literature. Asher Ginzberg, also known as Ahad Ha-am, wrote philosophical essays on the proposed Jewish homeland. Many poems by Chaim Nachman Bialik show the excitement of the awakening of Jewish national feeling. Some of Shmuel Yosef Agnon’s fiction describes the Jewish settlement in Palestine in the early 1900’s. Other Hebrew authors of the early to mid-1900’s include the poets Nathan Alterman, Uri Zvi Greenberg, Abraham Shlonsky, and Saul Tchernichovsky; and the prose writers Micha Yosef Berdyczewski, Yosef Haim Brenner, Haim Hazaz, and S. Yizhar.
A new generation of Hebrew writers
began with the establishment of Israel in 1948. This new generation included the novelists Aharon Megged, Nathan Shaham, and Moshe Shamir; and the poets Yehudah Amichai, Amir Gilboa, and Haim Gouri. The novels My Michael (1968) and Black Box (1987) by Amos Oz and The Lover (1977) and Mr. Mani (1990) by A. B. Yehoshua describe life in the new nation. These works also explore such topics as conflict between parents and children and the rejection of some once-sacred ideals of Judaism and Zionism. Many Hebrew writers in the late 1900’s dealt with the Nazi mass murder of Jews in the 1930’s and 1940’s, women’s issues, and the hostility between Israelis and Arabs. Another important topic was the tension between Jews of European origin, called Ashkenazim, and Jews of Middle Eastern and Mediterranean origin, called Sephardim.
Hebrew literature today.
Leading writers include Ruth Almog, Aharon Appelfeld, Yitzhak Ben-Ner, David Grossman, Amalia Kahana-Carmon, Etgar Keret, Savyon Liebrecht, Sami Michael, Yaakov Shabtai, David Shahar, Meir Shalev, and Tseruyah Shalev. Popular poets include David Avidan, Maya Bejerano, Erez Biton, Yitzchak Laor, Dan Pagis, Dalia Ravikovitch, Ronny Someck, Meir Wieseltier, and Yona Wallach.
