Horse is one of the most useful animals. No other animal has played such an important role in human history. Horses became a chief form of transportation and labor for people in the Eastern Hemisphere shortly after they were domesticated about 5,500 years ago.
From the horses that pulled the chariots of ancient Egyptians to modern day polo ponies, horses have been used in many different ways. The ancient Egyptians first bred the Arabian horse, from which most modern-day horses are descended. Since ancient times, the armies of many nations and empires charged into battle on sturdy war horses. Mongol warriors mounted on swift horses swept over the largest land empire in history beginning in the late 1100’s. Horses were introduced into the Western Hemisphere when Spanish explorers brought them on their voyages to the Americas in the early 1500’s. Horses transformed the society of buffalo-hunting Native American tribes in the Great Plains. American pioneers used horses as they settled the American West in the days of stagecoaches, covered wagons, and the pony express.
Today, the horse is not as important a means of transportation as it once was. However, horses are still in demand for transportation in less industrialized countries and in remote areas without roads. In agriculture, tractors are far more efficient than horses. Horses are no longer used in warfare, where mechanized transportation has replaced them.
People today still use horses for recreation, sport, and work. Children and adults ride horses for fun and exercise. Large crowds thrill to the excitement of horse races and rodeos. Horses perform in circuses, parades, and horse shows. They help ranchers round up cattle and pull wagons and perform other farm work.
Loading the player...Horse galloping
The body of a horse is exceptionally well suited for working and running. For example, its wide nostrils help it breathe while running. Horses have a good sense of smell, keen eyesight, and excellent hearing. They have strong teeth, but they eat only grain and plants. Long, muscular legs give horses the strength to pull heavy loads or to run at fast speeds.
Wild horses are preyed upon by wolves and mountain lions. Horses use their legs to defend themselves by running away or fighting. The kick of a horse can seriously injure a predator or a human being.
Domestic horses are eager to please their owners or trainers. Most horses have good memories and can easily be trained to obey commands. A horse may learn to come when its owner whistles. Horses can learn to respond to even the slightest signals. People who watch an expert rider on a well-trained horse often cannot see these signs. For example, the horse moves forward when the rider’s legs are pressed lightly against the horse’s sides. It turns at a touch of the reins against its neck or slight pressure from the rider’s foot. The quick obedience of the horse has helped make it one of the most valuable animals.
Kinds of horses
Today, there are more than 350 breeds and types of horses and ponies. They vary greatly in size, strength, speed, and other characteristics. Horses are commonly divided into four main groups: light horses, heavy horses, ponies, and wild horses.
The smallest breed is the Falabella, which grows only 30 inches (76 centimeters) high. Falabellas were originally bred in Argentina and are often kept as pets. The largest breed of horse is the Shire, which was originally developed in England. Shires may measure more than 68 inches (173 centimeters) high. They may weigh more than 2,000 pounds (910 kilograms).
Shires and other large breeds, such as the Belgian, Clydesdale, and Percheron, are the strongest horses. They can pull loads that weigh more than a short ton (0.9 metric ton). The two fastest breeds are the Quarter Horse and the horoughbred, which are often bred and trained for racing. The Quarter Horse can run 1/4 mile (0.4 kilometer) in about 20 seconds. But the Thoroughbred can run longer distances faster. It can cover a mile (1.6 kilometers) in about 1 1/2 minutes.
Domestic horses have many breeds. However, a single breed may include horses of more than one type. For example, certain kinds of Hackneys are classified as light horses, and other kinds are considered ponies. In addition to light horses, heavy horses, and ponies, there are also different kinds of wild horses.
Light horses
Light horses have small bones and thin legs. Most of these animals weigh less than 1,300 pounds (590 kilograms). Light horses include saddle horses and light harness horses.
Saddle horses
for riding make up an important group of breeds. Many people ride saddle horses for pleasure or raise them as a hobby. Some riders achieve great skill and compete with other riders in horse shows and sports involving horses.
The most popular breeds used for pleasure riding in the United States include the American Saddlebred, Tennessee Walking Horse, Morgan, Quarter Horse, and Arabian. Southern plantation owners developed the American Saddlebred and the Tennessee Walking Horse. The owners wanted mounts that were comfortable to ride. Tennessee Walking Horses are especially noted for their comfortable running walk and smooth canter. All Morgan horses can be traced back to a New England stallion named Justin Morgan. Morgans were originally used as harness horses for pulling carriages and for harness racing. After automobiles became popular, breeders developed Morgans into excellent saddle horses.
Ranchers use Quarter Horses for cutting (sorting out) cattle from a herd and for other kinds of ranch work. Quarter Horses can start, stop, and turn quickly. They respond instantly to the slightest shift of the rider’s weight or movement of reins. These sure-footed horses have great endurance. They can scramble up and down steep mountain trails and cross swift streams.
Quarter Horses were developed in America during the early 1700’s. Breeders crossed Thoroughbreds from England with horses from the Spanish colonies of North America. The new breed could start quickly and run at high speed for short distances. Owners used these horses for the sport of quarter racing, a 1/4-mile (0.4-kilometer) race along a straight path.
The strong Arabian horse is noted for its endurance. Arabs developed this breed for use in the desert. For hundreds of years, breeders in many countries have brought these horses from Arabia and used them to develop new breeds.
One breed that developed from Arabian horses is the Thoroughbred. All Thoroughbreds can be traced back to three stallions known as the Darley Arabian, the Godolphin Arabian (sometimes called the Godolphin Barb), and the Byerly Turk. In the late 1600’s and early 1700’s, European breeders crossed these stallions with their own horses to produce the first Thoroughbreds. Thoroughbreds are high-spirited, sensitive horses. They have powerful lungs and long, muscular legs, which make them especially well suited for racing. They are also used for jumping and hunting. In addition, many polo ponies are part Thoroughbred.
Lipizzan horses, or Lipizzaners, come from horses imported into Austria from Spain and Italy during the middle 1500’s. These beautiful show horses have strong bones, short legs, and thick, arched necks. Their powerful hindquarters enable them to make difficult jumps. The best-known Lipizzaners are those trained at the Spanish Riding School of Vienna in Austria. These horses perform graceful jumping and dancing feats.
Light harness horses,
sometimes called roadsters, include the Morgan, the Hackney, and the Standardbred. The Standardbred, also called the American Trotter, is considered the best horse for harness racing. Owners train Standardbred horses to race at either a trot or a pace. Breeders developed the Standardbred by crossing Thoroughbreds with Morgans and other breeds.
Color types.
Light horses are sometimes grouped according to color types instead of by breed. Such groups include palominos and albinos. Some people consider Appaloosas a color type, but these horses actually form a breed.
Palominos
have a golden coat and a light blond or silvery mane and tail. Most of them have white only on the face and on the legs below the hocks (joints on the hind legs) and knees. Palominos belong to almost every breed except the Thoroughbred. A palomino mare and stallion often produce a foal (baby horse) of another color. Breeders in the United States and Mexico developed the Palomino line. 
Creams and whites
are born with a white or pale-colored coat. Other horses, called grays, are born with color and turn pale as they grow older. Any of these horses may sometimes be called an albino. However, these horses are not true albinos. A true albino is an animal that has no color in its eyes, hair, or skin. Its offspring also lack color. All white horses have some color that their offspring can inherit. One kind has pink skin, an ivory coat, a white mane, and blue eyes. Another has pink skin, a white coat, and brown eyes. 
Appaloosas
vary greatly in color. But the vast majority have a white area on the loin and hips with small, round or oval dark spots. Appaloosas are sometimes called raindrop horses because of their spots. They also have white-rimmed, humanlike eyes. Black and white stripes cover the hoofs of most Appaloosas. 
Spanish adventurers first brought Appaloosas to North America. The native Nez Perce people of what are now Idaho and Washington bred these horses in the Palouse River region. The name Appaloosa comes from the word Palouse.
Heavy horses
Heavy horses have large bones and thick, sturdy legs. Some weigh more than 2,000 pounds (910 kilograms). Heavy horses include draft horses and heavy harness horses.
Draft horses
are the tallest, heaviest, and strongest group of horses. They are descended from the war horses that heavily armored knights rode into battle. Draft (work) horses once supplied much of the power for jobs that heavy trucks and tractors do today. They pulled plows on farms and hauled freight wagons from town to town. Draft breeds include the Shire, Clydesdale, Belgian, Percheron, Suffolk, and American Cream.
The Shire is the largest horse. This breed developed in England after King Henry VIII had all horses less than 5 feet (1.5 meters) high destroyed as useless.
The Clydesdale, one of the most handsome draft breeds, has long, flowing hair below the knee and the hock. This hair, called “feathers,” gives the animals a smart and unusual look. Clydesdales are popular horses for pulling wagons in parades.
The Belgian ranks among the gentlest and strongest horses. Heavy muscles give the Belgian a stout appearance, and the head may seem too small for the huge body. Most Belgians have chestnut or bay-colored coats.
Percherons look much like Belgians but have gray or black coats. These horses are lively for their size. They may be used as a general-purpose horse.
The Suffolk, a smaller, chestnut-colored horse, makes an ideal draft horse. It was bred in England for farm work. The Suffolk almost disappeared in the 1950’s as tractors became widespread. However, breeders kept it from extinction in the 1970’s.
The American Cream is a breed of draft horse that originated in the United States. The horse has a cream-colored coat and a white mane and a white tail. Like the Suffolk, the American Cream nearly became extinct in the 1950’s. Today, the American Cream Draft Horse Association counts fewer than 400 registered horses.
Heavy harness horses,
which are also called coach horses, weigh less than draft horses and are not as strong. These horses are able to do light farm work and make good mounts for pleasure riding. European breeders developed heavy harness horses to pull coaches, wagons, and artillery. Breeds include the Cleveland Bay, French Coach (Normand), and German Coach (Oldenburger).
Cleveland Bays look like compact, rugged Thoroughbreds. They make excellent general-purpose horses for driving, riding, and hunting. The French Coach and German Coach breeds were popular in North America until the early 1900’s but are seldom seen now.
Ponies
Ponies are small horses that stand less than 58 inches (147 centimeters) high when fully grown. Most ponies weigh less than 800 pounds (360 kilograms). Well-trained ponies make good pets for children. Ponies learn quickly and are usually gentle. They are used for pleasure riding and can pull small carts. Most ponies live longer than other horses. Pony breeds include the Shetland, Welsh, Hackney, Connemara, and Pony of the Americas.
A full-grown Shetland pony stands from 32 to 46 inches (81 to 117 centimeters) high. This favorite children’s horse once pulled plows and wagons in its native Shetland Islands, which are part of Scotland. Miners in Wales developed the Welsh pony to work in the cramped tunnels of coal mines. The Hackney is one of the largest pony breeds. The Irish Connemara ponies make good jumpers. The Pony of the Americas looks like a miniature Appaloosa. This breed is popular in young people’s riding competitions.
Wild horses
Most modern horses are domesticated. Some horses have returned to the wild and become feral. However, most scientists consider Przewalski’s horse, also called the Mongolian wild horse, to be the only true wild horse. China has successfully reintroduced Przewalski’s horse to Mongolia. Nevertheless, it remains an endangered species. Another wild horse, the Tarpan (also known as the Eurasian wild horse) is extinct. The last known Tarpan died in 1909. 
The horses that roam freely in parts of the United States are often popularly called “wild horses.” They are actually feral descendants of domestic horses that were ridden by early Spanish explorers, as well as other later settlers. Some of the horses escaped from their owners and eventually formed bands. In the early 1900’s, more than 2 million of these horses, also called mustangs, roamed the West. Many of them were rounded up to clear land for farms and ranches. Many were slaughtered and sold for use in pet food.
Velma Johnston, known as “Wild Horse Annie,” led a campaign to stop the brutal treatment and slaughter of feral horses on federal land. Due to her efforts, President Richard Nixon signed the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971. This act prohibited the capture, injury, or disturbance of wild horses and burros (donkeys).
Today, more than 80,000 mustangs and burros survive under the terms of the 1971 act on about 31.6 million acres (12.8 million hectares) of public land in the West. The Bureau of Land Management is responsible for managing the herds living on these designated portions of the nation’s public land. It has captured thousands more horses and transferred them to off-range holding pens and pasture lands.
The body of a horse
Size
Horse owners measure the height of a horse from the ground to the top of the horse’s shoulder, called the withers. The height is often given in “hands,” or 4-inch (10-centimeter) segments. If a horse is said to be 14 hands high, it measures 56 inches (142 centimeters) to the top of its shoulder.
Coat and skin
The horse’s body is covered by a coat of hair. A healthy, glowing coat gives a splendid appearance. A thick winter coat grows every autumn and is shed every spring. Horses never shed the hair of the mane or the tail. A horse uses its tail to brush off insects. A horse also has muscles for twitching the skin to get rid of insects.
Horses have many colors, including various shades of black, brown, chestnut (reddish-brown), dun (yellowish-gray), gold, gray, sorrel (light reddish-brown), and white. Bay horses have a brown coat and black points (legs, mane, and tail). Chestnut horses may have flaxen (pale-yellow) or sorrel manes and tails, but not black points. Many gray horses are born a dark color and turn lighter as they grow older. Lipizzans and some other gray horses turn white by the time they are fully grown. Roan horses have a yellowish-brown or reddish-brown coat sprinkled with gray or white hairs. Pintos, sometimes called paints, have a black or dark-colored coat with large white areas that vary in pattern.
Special terms are used to describe the markings on a horse’s face or legs. These terms include:
Bald face—a mostly white face.
Blaze—a large white strip on the face.
Race—a narrow strip down the center of the face.
Star—any small white patch on the forehead.
Snip—any small white patch near the muzzle.
Sock—a white patch above the foot.
Legs and hoofs
A horse’s legs are suited for fast running. Large muscles in the upper part of the legs provide great speed with a minimum of effort. The long, thin lower legs give the horse a long stride. The front legs carry most of the horse’s weight. They absorb the jolts when the animal runs or jumps. The rear legs provide power for running or jumping.
Millions of years of evolution have given the horse feet ideally suited for running. Each foot is really a strong toe. Only the tip of the toe, protected by the strong, curved hoof, touches the ground. The remains of what were once two other toes grow as bony strips on the cannon bone of the horse’s legs. The frog (an elastic mass on the sole of the foot) acts like a rubber heel. It helps absorb the jolt when the hoof strikes the ground. The horse’s real heel bone is the hock, located about halfway up the leg. The hock never touches the ground.
Teeth
Most male horses have 40 teeth, and most females have 36. The molars (back teeth) grind food as the horse chews. These teeth have no nerves, and they never stop growing. Sometimes the molars grow unevenly and must be filed down so the horse can chew properly.
An expert on horses can tell a horse’s age by counting the number of teeth and checking their condition. Most foals are born toothless but soon get two upper and two lower front teeth. When 4 months old, the horse has 4 upper and 4 lower teeth. At the age of 1 year, it has 6 pairs of upper and lower incisors (cutting teeth). At 5 years, a horse has 12 pairs of molars in addition to the 6 pairs of incisors and is said to have a full mouth. Males grow 4 extra teeth at the age of 5. By the time a horse is 8 years old, the rough grinding surfaces of the bottom incisors have been worn down. The horse has a smooth mouth and is said to be aged. Sometimes tiny wolf teeth grow in front of the molars. These teeth interfere with the bit, which is the part of a bridle that goes into the horse’s mouth. Wolf teeth are usually removed. The bit rests in spaces between the horse’s incisors and molars.
Senses
A horse’s eyes are among the largest of any land animal. The eyes are oval, and they are set on the sides of the head. The two eyes can be moved independently, each in a half circle. Thus, a horse can look forward with one eye and backward with the other. Because of the position of its eyes, a horse has a blind spot a short distance in front of it. A horse must turn its head to see a nearby object that lies directly ahead. The shape of a horse’s eyes makes objects far to the side or back appear to move faster than they actually do. For this reason, a horse may shy (move suddenly) at the slightest movement of an object to the side or back. Horses’ eyes require a fairly long time to adjust to changes of light. When a horse is moved from a dark stall into bright sunlight, it may appear nervous until its eyes adjust.
Horses have keen hearing. They have short, pointed ears that they can move around to pick up sounds from almost any direction. Certain positions of the ears may indicate a horse’s attitude. For example, when a horse points its ears forward, it is curious about an object in front of it. When a horse twitches its ears or lays them back against the head, it is angry and may kick.
Horses have a well-developed sense of smell. Their nostrils are very large and can pick up scents from long distances. Strong winds and heavy rain interfere with their sense of smell and may cause horses to become nervous.
The sense of touch varies among different breeds of horses. The thin skin of most breeds of light horses is sensitive to insects and rough objects. Most breeds of heavy horses are less sensitive to such irritations.
Intelligence
Horses can learn to follow signals, but they must be taught through constant repetition. They also must be encouraged to overcome their fear of unfamiliar objects and situations. Horses have excellent memories and can recall pleasant or unpleasant experiences many years after they occur.
Life history
A mare carries her foal for about 11 months before giving birth. This period may vary from 10 to 14 months. Foals can stand shortly after birth, and within a few hours, they are able to run about. The legs of newborn horses seem much too long for their bodies. As the horse matures, the legs grow more slowly than the rest of the body.
A year-old colt is often more than half grown. Most horses reach full height and weight by the age of 5. Most horse breeders start to breed mares at the age of 3 or 4. They start to breed stallions at the age of 4. Most mares have five or six foals during their life, but some have as many as 19.
Race horses have their official birthday on January 1, except in countries of the Southern Hemisphere, where it is on either July 1 or August 1. Regardless of their actual birth date, race horses become a year older on their official birthday. This system is used to qualify horses for races that are limited to certain age groups. For example, only 3-year-olds race in the Kentucky Derby. Most horses live from 20 to 30 years.
Riding equipment
Equipment for horseback riding includes the rider’s clothing, spurs, and whip. It also includes tack (gear) for the horse, such as the saddle and bridle.
Clothes for riding
Riders wear comfortable clothing suitable for their type of riding. Their clothes also must protect their legs from irritation while rubbing against the saddle. Blue jeans and a comfortable shirt are probably best for open-country riding. Ranchers often wear leather chaps (seatless trousers) that fit over their trousers. Chaps protect the rider’s legs from being scratched by brush.
For English riding, jodhpurs (long, tight-fitting breeches) or regular riding breeches are usually worn. They provide both comfort and protection. Boots, or any laced shoes with heels, keep the feet from slipping through the stirrups. Many riders wear hard caps to protect their head in case of a fall.
Spurs
Some riders use spurs to signal the horse without moving their legs or heels vigorously. Riders in horse shows might use spurs to give commands or to urge their mounts to run faster. Skilled riders seldom need spurs.
The whip
A rider might use a whip to give the horse special signals or to train the animal. Horse whips are lightweight and flexible and cause no pain if properly used. Horses learn to respond to signals from a trainer’s whip when performing different steps and difficult movements in horse shows. Race horses increase their speed at a touch of the jockey’s whip. A riding crop may be used as a whip. Crops have stiff handles. The tip is a large loop of rawhide or leather. In fox hunting, riders use a hunting whip, which has a curved, wooden or bone handle at one end and a long leather lash at the other end.
The saddle
Riders in the United States generally use an English saddle or a Western saddle. A person should use the kind of saddle that suits a particular type of riding.
The English saddle is flatter and weighs less than the Western saddle. Jockeys, jumpers, exhibition riders, and others who need extra speed from their horses use the English saddle because it interferes with the horse’s movements less than a Western saddle does.
The Western saddle has wide stirrups and a horn, to which a rope may be fastened. Riders usually use a double girth (two saddle straps) on the Western saddle to hold it securely against the torso of the horse. A blanket under the saddle keeps the horse’s back and sides from becoming sore. Most Western saddles have fleece padding that also helps to protect the horse’s back.
The bridle
The bridle is used to control the horse. It consists of straps and metal pieces that fit on the horse’s head and in its mouth.
The simplest bridle is the snaffle bridle. This bridle has a jointed bit that is gentle on the horse. The bit of the snaffle bridle pulls on the corners of the horse’s lips. The bridle’s single set of reins can be handled easily by the rider.
The double, or full, bridle is used by advanced riders. This type of bridle has a double set of reins, a snaffle bit, and a curb bit. The curb bit fits between the horse’s teeth on sensitive spaces called bars. This bit puts pressure on the horse’s lower jaw. A separate set of reins controls each of the bits. The upper reins move the snaffle bit, and the lower reins operate the curb bit. Pressure on the snaffle bit causes the horse to raise its head. Pressure on the curb bit pulls the horse’s head down and brings the animal to an abrupt halt. Polo players use the curb bit to stop their horses quickly.
Another kind of bridle, the Pelham bridle, combines the snaffle and curb bits into one bit with a double set of reins. Most Western bridles consist of only a curb or snaffle bit.
How to ride
The art of riding and managing horses is called horsemanship. Many people enjoy riding horseback for fun and sport. The basic techniques of English and Western riding are similar.
Selecting a horse
The selection of a horse depends partly on the skill of the rider. Experienced riders may prefer responsive, high-spirited horses. But most beginners feel at ease on a gentle, reliable horse. Youngsters may be more comfortable on a pony than on a large horse. Geldings, which are male horses that have had their testicles (sex organs) removed, are easier to control than stallions or mares. In choosing a horse to buy, a person should also consider such factors as the animal’s age, training, and physical condition. A well-trained horse over 10 years old is best for a beginning rider. An expert should ride the horse to determine how well trained it is. In addition, a veterinarian should examine the animal and check for possible health problems.
Mounting a horse
The first things a rider learns are how to mount (get on) a horse and sit in the saddle. The rider mounts on the horse’s left side. Most horses become accustomed to being mounted from the left side during training. Someone mounting from the right side might startle or confuse the animal. The custom of mounting from the left probably started when mounted soldiers wore long swords that hung down along the left leg. It was easier to throw the right leg across the horse’s back than to throw the left leg and the heavy sword.
After mounting, the rider sits in a relaxed position. The rider should be settled firmly in the dip (middle of the saddle). The back is held erect but not stiff.
Starting a horse
To start a horse, the rider squeezes both legs against its sides. As the horse moves forward, the rider lets the reins follow the movement of the horse’s head. Riders should look where they are going, not at the horse.
Controlling a horse
To control a horse, riders use their hands, legs, and body weight. English riders call these skills the aids. Western riders refer to them as cues. Skilled riders can put their mounts through difficult performances and tricks with only slight movements of their hands or legs. Riders in horse shows change gaits time after time with no apparent signals. Cattle-herding horses and polo ponies respond quickly to cues. They start, stop, or turn at a touch of the rider’s hand or leg, or at the shifting of weight.
Trainers teach horses to move away from the leg. The horse moves to the right when the rider’s left leg presses against its side, and to the left when it feels the rider’s right leg.
In English riding, horses are taught to move toward the hand. The reins in the rider’s hands lead to the bit in the horse’s mouth. When the rider pulls the right rein, the bit pulls on the right side of the horse’s mouth. The horse then turns in that direction. Horses trained for Western riding learn to respond to the touch of the reins against the neck. The horse turns away from this signal. At a touch of the rein on the right side of the neck, the horse turns left.
Skilled riders shift their weight in the direction of the horse’s movement. They move forward when the horse goes forward, and to the right or left when turning. They also shift their body back a little in the saddle when slowing up or stopping. A good rider does all these things so smoothly that only the horse knows that the rider has changed the balance.
Stopping a horse
To stop a horse, riders may use a number of methods. One such method requires riders to shift their balance back a little in the saddle. Then they squeeze their fingers to increase the pressure on the reins slightly without tugging on them. When the horse stops, the rider relaxes the pressure on the reins.
Moving a horse backward
To move a horse backward, the rider squeezes both reins equally, preventing the horse from moving forward, and presses both legs against the girth of the saddle. A well-trained horse will then step backward.
Gaits
Gaits are the ways a horse moves. Horses have four natural gaits: (1) walk, (2) trot, (3) canter, and (4) gallop. Many horses are trained for three speeds within each of the four natural gaits.
The walk
is the slowest gait. The horse moves at a speed of about 4 miles (6 kilometers) an hour. It raises one foot after another and puts them down in the same order. The horse keeps its balance by altering its front and back feet, and its right and left feet. For example, the order may be (1) right forefoot, (2) left hind foot, (3) left forefoot, and (4) right hind foot.
The trot
is a two-beat gait at a speed of about 9 miles (14 kilometers) an hour. The front leg on one side of the body and the hind leg on the other side hit the ground together. The horse bends its legs more when it is trotting than when it is walking. Harness-race horses trot while pulling a driver in a sulky (two-wheeled cart).
When beginners first ride at a trot, they should hold onto the horse’s mane or the saddle until they get used to the motion. On the first beat of a trot, riders raise their body slightly by pushing their feet down on the stirrups. They come down in the saddle on the second beat and then go right up again. This method of riding, called posting, is used only in English riding. A beginner should practice the movements of posting while the horse is walking.
The canter
is a comfortable, three-beat rhythmic riding gait. A horse canters at a speed of 10 to 12 miles (16 to 19 kilometers) an hour. On the first beat, one hind foot strikes the ground. Then the other hind foot and opposite forefoot hit the ground together. On the third beat, the other forefoot strikes the ground.
The gallop
is a horse’s fastest natural gait. It consists of four beats. For the first two beats, the hind feet strike the ground one after the other. On the third and fourth beats, the forefeet hit the ground in the same order as the hind feet. Then the horse leaps forward, and all its feet leave the ground. A racing horse runs at an extended gallop.
Care of a horse
Domestic horses are completely dependent on their owner to provide for all of their needs. While some are turned out to pasture and require minimal attention, others are kept in stalls and have smaller turnout areas for exercise.
The stall
A horse should have a clean, comfortable stall that measures at least 10 feet by 10 feet (3 meters by 3 meters). The stable should be light, dry, and well ventilated. Clay or finely ground cinders make the best floor, but cement or wooden floors covered with rubber stall mats can be used. Bedding spread at least 1 foot (30 centimeters) thick over the floor gives the horse a comfortable resting place. Wood shavings, sawdust, straw, or peat moss make good bedding materials. Horses can sleep standing up and often doze while standing with their eyes wide open.
Food
A horse needs food at least two times a day. The horse’s stomach holds about 18 quarts (17 liters) of food. In comparison, a man’s stomach holds little more than 1 quart (0.95 liter) of food.
Horses eat grass, grain, and hay. An apple or carrot may be given as an occasional treat. When a horse eats grain or hay, it gathers the food with its lips. When a horse eats grass, it bites off the blades close to the ground. Horses chew their food slowly and thoroughly.
Hay for horses should be placed in a net or on a rack (wooden frame). An open box may hold the grain. A 1,000-pound (450-kilogram) horse that works three or four hours a day needs about 20 pounds (9 kilograms) of hay—10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) in the morning and the rest at night. A horse should never eat moldy or dusty hay or hay that contains coarse sticks, thorns, or rubbish.
Horse feed is usually composed of a variety of grains and additives to supply a diet designed for a certain type of activity. Working horses will require more calories than a horse that is occasionally ridden for pleasure. The exact amount depends on the animal’s size, condition, and the amount of exercise it gets. Half of the feed should be given in the morning and the rest at night.
Most horses require from 10 to 12 gallons (38 to 45 liters) of fresh, clean water daily. A horse should not be permitted to drink large amounts of water immediately after exercise.
Horses need salt for good health because their bodies lose salt when they sweat. A horse eats about 2 ounces (57 grams) of salt daily. A box of salt or a solid salt block in the stable and in the pasture provides this important part of the diet.
Grooming
Grooming helps keep a horse healthy and improves its appearance. Horses kept in a stable should be groomed daily with a rubber currycomb, body brush, hoof pick, and mane and tail comb. Long, sweeping brush strokes in the direction of the growth of the hair help give the coat a healthy glow.
Brushing removes dirt and dandruff. Areas touched by the saddle and girth, and the regions behind the heels and in the hock depressions, need special brushing. A thorough wiping with a soft cloth should follow the brushing. The hoof pick removes dirt and stones and other objects from the feet.
Shoes
Most horses do not require shoes. Shoes protect the feet of horses that run or work on hard surfaces. Light shoes, weighing about 8 ounces (230 grams) and having only a few nails, make the best shoes for most horses. Race horses wear light shoes that may wear out after a few races. Shoes for wear in winter or for high mountain trails have cleats that help keep the horse from slipping on ice or snow.
Medical care
Horses should be examined by a veterinarian at least once or twice a year. A veterinarian will test for worms, vaccinate against a variety of diseases, and look for the first signs of any physical issues. Sometimes, a horse’s teeth must be floated (filed down to remove sharp edges).
Horse owners can prevent many medical problems by feeding and bedding the animals properly, keeping them and their living quarters clean, and exercising the horses daily. Owners should watch for any changes in the condition or behavior of their horses and call a veterinarian if a horse appears ill. Signs of illness include loss of appetite, lack of vigor, mucous or bloody discharges from the eyes or nose, swellings or sores on the body, and hot legs or feet. A fast or slow breathing rate or pulse rate may also be a sign of illness. Normally, a resting horse breathes from 8 to 16 times per minute and has a pulse rate of from 30 to 40 beats per minute.
Loading the player...Nailing a shoe on a horse
A horse’s legs and feet easily become diseased if not cared for properly. Some common diseases of the legs and feet include thrush, navicular, and laminitis. Thrush is an infection of the frog. It can be prevented by providing clean, dry bedding for a horse. To treat thrush, veterinarians apply medication to the affected frog. Navicular is a disease of the foot bone that causes a horse’s legs to become stiff and sore. It is treated with corrective shoeing and medication. Laminitis, also called founder, is an inflammation of the foot. Its symptoms include lameness, hot feet, and increased pulse rate. Laminitis is treated by applying medication and soaking the foot in warm water.
Horse shows and sports
Horse shows and sports involving horses include a variety of events that test the speed, strength, and other abilities of the animals. Success also depends on the skill of the riders or drivers. Horse shows and sports increased greatly in popularity during the 1900’s. Today, they are enjoyed by millions of people worldwide and include local, national, and international competitions.
The Olympic Games have three kinds of equestrian (horseback riding) sports: (1) jumping, (2) dressage, and (3) eventing. The International Equestrian Federation regulates the Olympic equestrian events. It also regulates the world championships in driving, an event for harness horses and drivers. More than 130 nations belong to the federation.
This section describes horse shows, jumping, dressage, and eventing. World Book has separate articles on Fox hunting; Harness racing; Horse racing; Polo ; Rodeo ; Steeplechasing .
Horse shows
Horse shows have three main types of competitions: (1) performance, (2) breeding, and (3) equitation (horsemanship). In performance competition, the horses and riders demonstrate various skills. For example, a show may include jumping, five-gaited riding, or driving events.
In breeding competition, all the horses must be of the same breed. They are displayed without saddles. The judges rank the horses on conformation (physical qualities) and decide which ones best represent the breed.
In equitation competition, the contestants ride their horses around a ring. They are judged on their riding style and control of the horse. Some equitation events include jumping.
Some horse shows are restricted to only one breed of horses. Others include events for many breeds. Shows may be held indoors or outdoors and may last from a few hours to a week or more.
Many organizations sponsor horse shows in the United States. The United States Equestrian Federation (USEF) approves more than 2,500 shows a year, including the trials for the United States Equestrian Team. The U.S. Equestrian Team represents the United States in the Olympic Games and other international competitions. Important U.S. horse shows include the National Horse Show in Lexington, Kentucky; the American Royal Horse Show in Kansas City, Missouri; and the Grand National Rodeo and Horse Show in San Francisco, California.
Jumping
In jumping competitions, the contestants ride across a specially designed course that has obstacles for the horses to leap over. The course may include high jumps, wide jumps, and two or more jumps set close together. The courses vary in difficulty, depending on the level of the competition. The contestants in jumping competitions receive faults (penalties) for falls, knocking down the top part of an obstacle, refusals, and other errors. A refusal occurs when the horse will not jump over an obstacle. After three refusals, the horse and rider are eliminated from the competition. The contestant with the fewest faults wins the event. In some jumping events, the contestants are timed. In case of a tie for first place, the contestant who completes the course in the shortest time wins.
The main kinds of jumping competitions include (1) Nations’ Cup, (2) puissance << PWIH suhns >> , and (3) Grand Prix. In Nations’ Cups, teams from different countries compete. In most cases, each team consists of four riders and their horses. The three best scores of each team are added to determine the winning team. Puissance events consist mainly of high jumps. The contestants who complete the course without any faults or with equal faults participate in a jump-off. In the jump-off, the number of obstacles is reduced, but the remaining obstacles are raised or widened. The contestants may have several jump-offs, until all except the winner fail to clear the obstacles. Obstacles may reach a height of 7 feet (2.1 meters) or more. In Grand Prix competitions, all contestants complete the course once, and then the top two or more riders participate in a jump-off. In case of a tie, the contestant who completes the course in the shortest time wins. Grand Prix events are held at major horse shows and as part of the Olympic Games.
Dressage
In dressage << DRES ahz >> competitions, the riders guide their horses through a series of movements at the walk, trot, and canter gaits, using mainly leg and seat signals. The horse’s movements should be smooth, precise, and graceful, and the rider’s signals should not be visible to the spectators.
Special dressage movements include the passage, piaffe, and pirouette. A passage << pah SAHZ >> is a rhythmic, elevated trot in which the horse slowly moves forward. A piaffe << pee AHF >> resembles a trot, but it is performed without any forward, backward, or sideward movement. A pirouette << PIHR u EHT >> is a circle that the horse makes by pivoting its forelegs and one hind leg around the other hind leg.
In dressage competitions, the series of movements must be performed in a specific order. In most cases, the contestants are judged by two or more officials who sit in various places around the ring. Each judge gives a contestant points for the performance of each movement and penalties for errors. The scores of all the judges are added, and the contestant with the most points wins.
Dressage techniques were originated by military officers who rode horseback. They had to use their hands to hold weapons, and so they gave signals to their horses with their legs and by shifting their body weight.
Eventing
Eventing is often called the Three-Day Event because most major competitions take place during a three-day period. The contestants first compete in a dressage event. They then participate in a cross-country event. They ride over a course that may be more than 10 miles (16 kilometers) long and includes rough terrain and such obstacles as brush hedges, rail fences, and streams. The contestants receive penalties for falls, refusals, and failure to complete the course in the allotted time. Lastly, a stadium jumping competition is held. The results from the events of the three days are added, and the contestant with the fewest penalties wins.
Eventing is probably the most challenging event. It tests the endurance, obedience, jumping ability, and other qualities of the horse and the skill and daring of the rider. The cross-country event is very strenuous.
Raising horses
Raising horses for racing, driving, and other sports involves careful breeding and training. It is an important industry in the United States. California, Florida, Kentucky, New York, Texas, and many other states have large breeding farms that raise horses.
Breeding horses
On breeding farms, stallions and mares are carefully selected for mating on the basis of their ancestry and physical qualities. Breeders of race horses also consider the racing records of the animals. An owner of a champion racing stallion may earn millions of dollars in stud fees by using the horse for breeding purposes. A stud fee is a sum of money paid to a stallion’s owner for the use of the stallion to sire a foal. Breeding horses is not an exact science, and breeders can never be completely certain of producing a colt or filly of champion quality.
Most breeders mate their mares to a stallion in spring. The mares give birth about a year later. People who raise race horses in the Northern Hemisphere want their foals to be born as soon as possible after January 1 because the foals will be considered yearlings the following January. In the Southern Hemisphere, people want foals born soon after the start of July or August. A foal that is born early in the year has more time to grow and develop before it races as a 2-year-old.
A foal stays with its mother for the first six months after birth. The owner then weans (separates) the foal from its mother and puts it out to pasture with other foals.
People who raise purebred horses enter their foals in the registry of the association for the particular breed. A registry is a record listing a horse’s sire and dam and other information. Horses that appear in a registry are called registered horses. In the United States, there are dozens of breed associations with registries. Two of the largest associations are the Jockey Club, for Thoroughbreds, and the American Quarter Horse Association.
Other countries also have breed associations and registries. These nations, which are known for breeding fine horses, include Argentina, France, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.
Training horses
Training horses requires great skill, patience, and a knowledge of horse psychology. The goal of horse training is to teach a horse to perform certain tasks safely and to develop the physical ability and personality necessary for disciplines such as dressage, racing, and riding. The type of training a horse receives depends on its future use.
Basic training may begin the day a foal is born. If the mare allows the foal to be touched, it should be gently rubbed all over its body. The foal then feels safe with human handling, which makes future training easier.
During the first few months, a foal is trained to pick up its feet, allow a halter to be placed on its head, and to follow along with the lead rope. The foal gradually develops trust in its human trainer.
The first year of a foal’s training usually involves learning to stand still for grooming, to walk into a horse trailer, to remain calm for the farrier (blacksmith who shoes horses), to become accustomed to strange noises or flapping objects, and new voice commands. These lessons prepare the animal for an easy transition to more formal training.
As a yearling, the horse is introduced to the bridle. Generally, a horse should not be ridden before it is two years old. The leg joints and cartilage need to be sufficiently developed, or serious injury might result. However, some Thoroughbred race horses are ridden before their second year.
Horses in history
Origins of the horse
Scientists believe that the earliest ancestor of the horse was a fox-sized animal. They call this animal Eohippus (dawn horse). It lived about 55 million years ago in places across the Northern Hemisphere.
The earliest ancestors of horses had an arched back and a snoutlike nose. They looked more like racing dogs than like the straight-backed, long-faced modern horse. They had four toes on their front feet and three toes on their hind feet. Each toe ended in a separate small hoof. Large, tough pads similar to those on a dog’s foot kept the toes off the ground. These pads bore the animal’s weight.
Another well-known ancestor of the modern horse was Mesohippus (middle horse). It lived about 35 million years ago. It had long, slender legs. Each foot had three toes, of which the middle toe was longest. About 30 million years ago, it gave way to a new horselike creature, Miohippus. This animal had a middle toe that was longer and stronger than that of its ancestors.
Horselike animals continued to develop, and Merychippus (ruminant horse) appeared about 26 million years ago. Like Miohippus, it had three toes on each foot. The side toes were almost useless, but the center toe grew long and strong. It ended in a large, curved hoof and bore all the animal’s weight. It lived in what is now North America.
Fossils that look somewhat like modern horses are known from sites in North America that date back to about 4.5 million years ago. Some of the best fossil examples come from sites in Idaho. These horses were about the size of an average modern pony. The side toes on their feet had become short bones along the legs, leaving the strong center toe with its hoof to support the animal. The teeth were well suited for eating grass. Scientists group these horses, along with the modern domestic horse, under the scientific name Equus.
Equus originated in North America. Some species of the animal migrated from North America through Alaska to Asia, and, later, into Europe and Africa at the beginning of the Pleistocene Epoch about 2.6 million years ago. The modern domestic species of horses, Equus caballus, developed in North America nearly 1.5 million years ago and spread into the Eastern Hemisphere around 1 million years ago. During the Ice Age, horses lived on every continent except Australia and Antarctica. Great herds wandered over North and South America. However, horses became extinct in the Americas around or shortly after the end of the Pleistocene, which came to a close about 11,500 years ago.
Horses and people
European cave paintings show that prehistoric people hunted wild horses nearly 40,000 years ago. The first widely recognized archaeological evidence of people keeping domesticated horses comes from the ancient Botai people in what is now Kazakhstan about 5,500 years ago. They raised horses for meat and milk. However, scientists do not think these early horses were closely related to modern domestic horses, but to the Przewalski’s horse. No one yet knows who first tamed horses and trained them for riding.
Stone tablets show that the Hittites trained horses to ride for sport and war about 1400 B.C. Around 800 B.C., the Assyrians hunted lions in chariots drawn by a pair of horses. Tapestries show early Persians playing a kind of polo. The early Greeks and Romans were expert riders and used horses for racing and in battle. The Greeks wrote about horsemanship as early as 400 B.C.
In 1066, William the Conqueror used mounted knights to invade England. The English then began to breed large, powerful war horses that could carry a man wearing a heavy suit of armor.
In the late 1100’s, the Mongol chieftain Genghis Khan unified Mongol tribes into a superior mounted fighting force. Every Mongol man learned to shoot a bow and arrow while riding a horse. The Mongols conquered lands extending from the Yellow Sea in eastern Asia to the borders of eastern Europe—the largest land empire in history.
From the late 1500’s onward, breeders in Europe developed improved stocks of horses, largely from Arab horses. In the 1600’s, European breeders took a new strain of Arab horse to Britain and used it as the basis of the thoroughbred. In the 1700’s, King Louis XV of France founded an important breeding center called the Pompadour stud. Later, Napoleon imported more than 200 Arab stallions and 30 mares to improve the French stock even more. Arabian horse breeding centers soon spread to Germany and other countries.
The first European colonists found no horses in North America. Christopher Columbus brought horses with him on his second voyage to the New World. But most Native Americans did not know of horses until Spanish conquerors brought them to Mexico in 1519. Horses left behind by Spanish explorers, as well as those of later settlers, are the ancestors of the American wild horses.
Native American tribes of the western plains began to use horses about 1600. Plains tribes rode horses to hunt buffalo and in battle. The Comanche and Sioux were among these skilled horseback riders.
Horses played an important part in the development of North America. The pioneers who settled the West rode horses and used them to pull their covered wagons. Mounted soldiers fought in the Revolutionary War (1775-1783) and in the Civil War (1861-1865).
Horses pulled trains on short railroads until the steam locomotive replaced them about 1830. They pulled horsecars (streetcars) in cities before the use of electricity. Riders on horseback carrying messages also served as the fastest means of communication until the telegraph was developed during the 1800’s.
With the widespread use of railroads and motorized vehicles, horses became less useful. The number of horses in cities and on farms declined steadily during most of the 1900’s. Although the use of horses for heavy work decreased, their importance in sports and recreation increased. Today, horses are kept primarily for such purposes.
