Imperialism is the policy or action by which one country forcefully gains and keeps control of another country or territory. Most often, countries use military means to gain economic and political control in other countries. An imperialist state that obtains overseas territories follows a policy usually called colonialism (see Colonialism ). An imperialist government may want to acquire a territory to gain new markets for its exports and additional sources of inexpensive labor and raw materials. A growing empire may also be used to satisfy an imperialist nation’s desire for military advantage or recognition as a world power.
The rise and decline of vast empires—such as those of Persia, Rome, Byzantium, Britain, and Nazi Germany—have driven many of the important events of world history. Imperialism has been the driving force behind most wars, territorial expansion, and cultural exchange.
History.
First Sargon of Akkad and then the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians all established large empires from more than 2,000 to more than 4,000 years ago in the Middle East. By the beginning of the Christian era, the Romans had created a vast empire from Asia Minor to what is now France and Britain. The western part of the empire collapsed in the A.D. 400’s. The eastern section, called the Byzantine Empire, survived until 1453. The Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottomans, who created a powerful empire that included parts of the Middle East, southeastern Europe, and northern Africa (see Byzantine Empire ; Ottoman Empire ). The western part of the Roman Empire was revived in name only as the Holy Roman Empire. It ruled much of central Europe from 962 to 1802 (see Holy Roman Empire ). The Mongols, an Asian people, built the largest land empire in history in the 1200’s. It extended from Southeast Asia to eastern Europe.
The new European nations of the 1400’s and 1500’s acquired colonial possessions as they spread Christianity and searched for markets and raw materials. For example, Portugal established a seagoing empire along the shores of the Indian Ocean and coasts of Southeast Asia. Spain established colonies in what is now Latin America and the southern United States. By the early 1700’s, the British, French, and Dutch had colonized much of eastern North America. The Dutch gained control of the East Indies (now Indonesia), and the British began their rule of India. By the mid-1800’s, many colonies in the New World had overthrown foreign rule. But Britain and other European powers maintained “informal empires” without actual governmental control. They did so by controlling the trade policies of some former Spanish colonies and by establishing new trade relations with African and Asian nations.
The late 1800’s are often called the Age of Imperialism. During this period, Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain divided up nearly all of Africa. They also took over large sections of Southeast Asia and many islands in the South Pacific. Spain surrendered Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States after losing the Spanish-American War (1898). The determined pursuit of colonies and foreign trade by the major European powers strained international relations. This tension was one of the causes of World War I, which began in 1914 (see World War I (The development of empires) ).
During the 1930’s, Germany, under the rule of Adolf Hitler, began a program of expansion in Europe. Germany gained territory both by negotiation and by armed seizure. In Asia, Japan conquered Manchuria and waged war against China. For a brief period during World War II (1939-1945), Japan had an enormous empire in the Pacific, and Germany controlled much of Europe and North Africa. Germany and Japan were defeated in 1945 and lost their foreign territories.
Large-scale colonialism ended in the 1950’s and early 1960’s. European nations that were recovering from World War II had neither the money nor the will to continue the rule of colonies thousands of miles away. In addition, the people of many colonies demanded and won independence. Today, a few scattered territories, mostly islands in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean, are all that remain. However, the United States and other world powers still give economic and military assistance to former colonies. Some critics call this aid a form of imperialism. They say it can lead to indirect control of a nation’s politics and economy.
Motives.
Many theories attempt to explain the motives for imperialism. One of the best-known theories focuses on economic profit as the chief reason for a nation to seek foreign territories. Industrialized nations can produce more manufactured goods than their people need or can afford to buy. Colonies may serve as markets for these unsold products. They also may provide cheap land, valuable natural resources, and investment opportunities for surplus capital. However, this theory does not fully explain imperialism because many colonies were not economically profitable.
Military strategy is another important motive for imperialistic activity. Since ancient times, nations have absorbed territory near their borders to protect themselves from foreign attack. Such territory serves as a buffer zone. In the late 1800’s, many European powers had colonies throughout the world where their ships, both naval and merchant, could take on supplies.
Imperialism can also be encouraged by patriotism, religion, and a sense of cultural and racial superiority. During the late 1800’s, a strong feeling of nationalism (extreme patriotism) swept most European countries. Many people believed their nation’s greatness depended on the size of its territory. They encouraged expansion and the planting of their nation’s flag on foreign soil. In addition, many Europeans considered the peoples of Africa and Asia to be racially inferior. The lack of industrial development in these lands reinforced this prejudice. Many expansionists thought they had a God-given mission to take new territory and to spread Christianity and the benefits of European culture.
Effects of imperialism.
Imperialism can include certain benefits that a ruling nation may provide for the territories that form part of its empire. For example, the colonial powers built new communications and transportation systems, established universities, and introduced modern medical practices. However, many nations took advantage of their colonies by exporting natural resources without providing economic return for most of the people. Many colonial administrations were insensitive to local customs and destroyed old ways of life.
See also Philippine-American War .
