Iran

Iran << ih RAHN or ih RAN >> is an ancient country in the Middle East. It is a land of snow-capped mountains, green valleys, and barren deserts. Tehran is the country’s capital and largest city.

Iran is one of the world’s oldest countries. There is evidence of settlements in the area from almost 5,000 years ago. The Persian Empire was based in what is now Iran. The empire covered a vast territory that included most of southwestern Asia and parts of Europe and Africa. For the story of this early civilization, see Persia, Ancient.

Foreign powers have invaded and occupied Iran time and again during its long history. One of the most important invasions occurred in the mid-600’s. At that time, Muslim Arabs conquered the country. The Arab conquest had a lasting effect on Iranian culture. The Muslim caliphs (religious leaders) governed the country for about 200 years. During their rule, the Islamic faith spread throughout Iran. Today, the vast majority of Iranians are Muslims.

In the early 1900’s, the discovery of oil in southwestern Iran gave the country an enormous source of wealth. Reza Shah Pahlavi ruled Iran as shah (king) from 1925 to 1941. In 1941, his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi became shah. Both men used revenues from Iran’s oil exports to modernize the country. They promoted economic and social development. In 1979, revolutionaries under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Muslim religious leader, overthrew Mohammad Reza. The revolutionaries took control of Iran. They changed Iran’s government from a constitutional monarchy to an Islamic republic. Their policies led to strict Islamic control over all areas of people’s lives. Their rule resulted in severe economic problems for the nation. Relations between Iran and Western countries became strained.

Government

After the 1979 revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini and his followers drafted a constitution for the new Islamic republic. The authors of the new constitution included many religious leaders. The Constitution went into effect in December 1979. It is closely based on the teachings of Islam. Under the Constitution, the nation’s supreme leader is the faqih. The faqih is a scholar in Islamic law and the recognized religious leader of most Iranians. The Constitution named Khomeini the first ruling faqih of the Islamic republic. It granted him tremendous powers and placed him above all other government officials. Khomeini held the position of faqih until his death in 1989. He was succeeded by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.

National government.

Iran’s Constitution provides for three branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial. Members of the Islamic clergy hold many important positions in all three branches.

A president heads the executive branch of Iran’s government. The people elect the president to a four-year term. The president and a Cabinet carry out government operations. The president chooses the Cabinet members.

The lawmaking branch of the Iranian government consists of two elected bodies and two appointed ones. The elected bodies are the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis) and the Assembly of Experts. The Majlis serves as the main legislative body of the government. Its 290 members are elected by voters to four-year terms. The Assembly of Experts prepares any changes to the Constitution. The Assembly also elects the successor to the position of the supreme leader.

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Iran's national anthem

The appointed bodies of the lawmaking branch of the Iranian government are the Council of Guardians and the Expediency Council. The Council of Guardians consists of 12 jurists (experts in law) that review all new laws to ensure that they do not violate Islamic principles or the Constitution. Six of the jurists are experts in Islamic law and are named by the supreme leader. The Majlis appoints the other jurists, who are experts in different areas of law. The Expediency Council rules on legal and theological disputes between the Majlis and the Council of Guardians.

Local government.

Iran is divided into 31 ostans (provinces) for purposes of local government. Each ostan has a governor appointed by the national government and a council elected by the ostan’s voters. Ostans are further divided into counties, districts, cities, towns, and villages. Each unit has its own system of government. The local governments are largely controlled by the national government.

Politics.

The government does not allow any formal political parties to operate freely in Iran today. However, various loosely organized groups and associations take part in election campaigns and other political activities. All candidates must be officially approved by the Iranian government before they can run for office. All Iranian citizens 18 years of age or older may vote.

The best-known opposition group to the government is the Iran Liberation Movement. It is also called the Iran Freedom Movement. This organization has worked for democracy and human rights by peaceful methods for a number of years. However, in 2002, an Iranian court ordered the organization to dissolve and jailed some of its members. Several opposition groups consist of Iranians who live outside Iran. These groups include the Islamic-socialist Mojahedin-e Khalq (People’s Holy Warriors). Many of these opposition groups seek a democratic and secular (nonreligious) government for the country.

Courts.

The judicial branch of the Iranian government consists of a Supreme Court, as well as lower civil and criminal courts. Special clerical courts try members of the clergy. Revolutionary tribunals hear suits concerning offenses said to be against the Islamic revolution. The powerful head of the judicial branch is appointed by the supreme leader. All judges in Iran must be members of the Islamic clergy. They base their decisions on Islamic law.

Armed forces.

Iran’s military forces consist of the regular armed forces, the Revolutionary Guards, a civilian militia called the Basij, and the police force. The regular armed forces are made up of an army, navy, and air force. The Revolutionary Guards were established after the Islamic revolution. They carry out many of the same functions as the regular military forces. The Basij is used mainly to put down violent challenges to the government. The police force handles routine security duties.

People

About 70 percent of Iran’s land—chiefly mountain and desert regions—is almost uninhabited. Most of the Iranians live along the Caspian Sea; in the northwestern provinces; and in the capital city Tehran and its surrounding area.

Ancestry.

About two-thirds of the Iranian people are descendants of an Asian people called Aryans. Tribes of Aryans began migrating to Iran from the plains of central Asia during the 1500’s B.C.

Persians are the largest ethnic group of Aryan origin. They make up about 60 percent of Iran’s population. Most Persians live in central Iran and on the slopes of the surrounding mountains. Other ethnic groups are also believed to be descended from the Aryans. They include the Gilanis and Mazandaranis of the north, the Kurds of the northwest, the Lurs and Bakhtiaris of the west, and the Balochis of the southeast.

Other Iranian ethnic groups include the Azerbaijanis, the Khamseh, the Qashqais, and the Turkomans. Some Arabs, Armenians, Assyrians, and Jews also live in Iran.

Since the revolution, Iran’s leaders have faced a number of protests from ethnic groups that want greater political and cultural independence. From time to time, fighting has broken out between government troops and members of such groups as Balochis, Kurds, and Turkomans.

Language.

The official language of Iran is Persian, also called Farsi. Persian belongs to the Indo-European family of languages (see Language (Indo-European)). It has borrowed many words from Arabic, an Afro-Asian language. It is written in the Arabic script.

Persian is used in schools and in all official communications by the Iranian government. Most of the people speak Persian, either as their native tongue or as a second language. Spoken Persian has several local dialects, which differ greatly in pronunciation. Other languages spoken in Iran include Arabic, Balochi, Kurdish, and Azeri-Turkish.

Way of life

The Islamic government strongly influences the Iranian way of life. It restricts freedom of speech and other civil rights. It bans all forms of entertainment that it considers to be un-Islamic. The government also requires schools to stress the teachings of Islam. In addition, the government subjects Iranian women to a strict code of dress and public behavior.

City life.

Many cities in Iran have an older, traditional section and a modern section. Blue-domed mosques (Islamic houses of worship) stand in the older sections. Most traditional sections also have a bazaar. In the bazaar, merchants sell food, handmade products, and other goods. The bazaar spreads out in a network of narrow passageways lined with tiny shops and stalls. Domed brick roofs over parts of the bazaar protect merchants and customers from sun and rain.

The modern sections of Iran’s cities have hospitals, schools, and apartment and office buildings. In the newer districts of the biggest cities, movie theaters, parks, and fashionable shops and restaurants border wide, treelined avenues.

City housing includes modern apartment buildings and traditional Iranian houses. Traditional houses are small mud or brick buildings surrounded by high walls. Each house opens onto a central courtyard. The courtyard may be decorated with a few trees, flowers, and a small pool of water. Most apartments and houses have furniture similar to that in North American and European homes. Persian rugs—handwoven Oriental rugs made in Iran—cover the floors of almost all homes.

Rural life.

Most of Iran’s rural villages are farming communities in regions that have enough water to grow crops. A typical village centers on a small village square and a wide main street. A mosque and a public bath stand on the square. The only store in many villages is a small grocery. Most villages have no clinic. Only the larger villages have a school.

Most rural families live in one- or two-room traditional houses. The houses are made of mud or unbaked brick. They have thatched or flat mud roofs. Simple rugs or felt mats cover the floors. The people sit on cushions. They sleep on mattresses on the floor. They eat their meals off a cloth spread out on the floor. Houses in most villages lack electric power and running water.

Some of Iran’s rural people are nomads. They travel across the countryside with their sheep, goats, and other livestock to seasonal grazing areas. The nomads live in round, black felt tents. When the nomads travel, they pack all their possessions on the backs of donkeys or camels. See Nomad.

Religion.

About 98 percent of the Iranian people are Muslims. About 90 percent of them belong to the Shī`ah branch of Islam. Shī`ah Islam is the state religion of Iran. Most of the rest of the people are Sunni Muslims.

Bahá’ís make up Iran’s largest religious minority (see Bahá’ís). Bahá’ís have never had legal recognition in Iran. They are forbidden to practice their faith. Iran also has some Christians, Jews, and followers of an ancient Persian religion called Zoroastrianism (see Zoroastrianism). The Islamic government has little tolerance for Iran’s religious minorities. Bahá’ís, in particular, have been severely persecuted.

Clothing.

Many of Iran’s people, including most city dwellers, wear clothing similar to that worn by North Americans and Europeans. Many women also wear long, usually black, body veils called chadors over their other clothes. A woman drapes a chador around her body, across her shoulders, and over her head. Sometimes, she also covers the lower part of her face. The wearing of a chador is a tradition based on Islamic teachings concerning modesty. The government requires women to wear chadors or other head coverings.

Food and drink.

The main foods of the Iranian people are rice and bread. They often mix rice with meat and vegetables or cover it with a thick, spicy sauce. Most Iranians eat bread at every meal. Traditional Iranian dishes include abgusht (a thick meat and bean soup); dolmeh (vegetables stuffed with meat and rice); and kebab (lamb roasted on a skewer). Popular beverages include fruit syrups mixed with water, sweetened tea, and a yogurt drink called dough.

Recreation.

Iranians spend much of their leisure time visiting one another and entertaining friends and relatives in their homes. They also enjoy a variety of sports, including basketball, soccer, volleyball, and weightlifting. Many men practice a traditional form of weightlifting exercises and gymnastics at athletic clubs called zurkhanehs. The word zurkhaneh means house of strength. Live theater, motion pictures, and television are becoming increasingly popular, especially among young people in the cities.

Iranians celebrate many religious and national holidays. A major holiday is Nowruz, the Iranian New Year. Nowruz begins on the first day of spring. Fifteen days before the new year starts, most families plant wheat or lentil seeds in a shallow bowl. The green sprouts that appear symbolize the coming of spring. On New Year’s Eve, families gather for elaborate banquets. People spend the first few days of the Nowruz holidays visiting nearby friends and relatives. On the 13th day of the new year, the last day of the Nowruz celebration, almost all Iranians go on picnics.

Education.

The law requires all Iranian children from 7 to 13 years of age to attend school. However, some children still do not do so. Most of these children are girls who live in Iran’s rural villages.

Higher education in Iran is offered at several kinds of institutions. These institutions include colleges; universities; and technical, vocational, and teacher-training schools.

The arts.

Iran has long been famous for its architecture, painting, and poetry. Early architects in Iran built magnificent mosques and palaces. They decorated the walls and domes with brightly colored mosaic and tile designs. Traditional Persian painting features delicate detail work and jewellike colors.

Three of the greatest Persian poets—Firdausi, Hafiz, and Saadi—lived before 1400. The works of Hafiz are probably the most popular poems in Iran. People sometimes use his Divan, a collection of mystical poems, to help plan their lives. They open the book at random and use the first line they see as a guide to action. See Hafiz; Saadi.

Iranian craftworkers make beautiful jewelry, pottery, and metalware. Their handwoven Persian rugs are prized for their graceful patterns and soft colors. The complicated designs of the rugs often require months of labor to complete. Other traditional arts in the country include embroidery, silk weaving, and woodcarving.

The land

Iran lies in southwestern Asia, northeast of the Arabian Peninsula. The country faces Armenia, Azerbaijan, the Caspian Sea, and Turkmenistan on the north. It borders Afghanistan and Pakistan on the east. The Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman lie to the south. Iraq and Turkey border Iran on the west. Iran lies along a major earthquake belt. The country is frequently struck by earthquakes.

Iran can be divided into four major land regions. They are the Interior Plateau, the Mountains, the Caspian Sea Coast, and the Khuzestan Plain.

The Interior Plateau

lies in central and eastern Iran. It occupies about half the country’s total area. The plateau stands about 3,000 feet (900 meters) above sea level. It is largely surrounded by mountains. Much of the Interior Plateau consists of two immense, almost uninhabited deserts. They are the Dasht-e Kavir and the Dasht-e Lut. They are among the driest and most barren deserts in the world. Together, they cover more than 38,000 square miles (98,000 square kilometers).

The Mountains.

Two vast mountain ranges—the Elburz and the Zagros—rim most of the Interior Plateau. The Elburz Mountains stand along Iran’s northern border. They form a spectacular wall between the Caspian Sea Coast region and the Interior Plateau. Iran’s highest peak, Mount Damavand, rises 18,386 feet (5,604 meters) above sea level in the Elburz range. The northern slopes of the Elburz receive plentiful rainfall. Farmers grow a variety of crops on the rich land. The southern slopes of the range are barren and dry.

The Zagros Mountains extend to the south and east from the borders of Turkey and Azerbaijan to the Persian Gulf. Many people live in wide, fertile valleys in the northern and central parts of the range. However, the dry and rugged southern section is thinly populated. Smaller mountain ranges lie along the Gulf of Oman and the borders of Afghanistan and Pakistan.

The Caspian Sea Coast

is a narrow strip of lowland between the Caspian Sea and the rugged slopes of the Elburz Mountains. A mild climate and abundant, year-round rainfall have made it the most heavily populated region in Iran. Farmers there grow cotton, rice, sugar cane, tea, and other crops on the fertile land.

The Khuzestan Plain

lies north of the Persian Gulf, between the border of Iraq and the Zagros Mountains. The region has Iran’s richest petroleum deposits. The Khuzestan Plain is also an important agricultural area.

Climate

Iran’s climate varies from region to region. Winters in the mountainous areas of the northwest are long and severe, followed by mild summers. In contrast, the Khuzestan Plain has hot, humid summers with an average temperature of about 95 °F (35 °C). However, winters on the plain are mild and pleasant.

Most of the Interior Plateau has a dry climate. Tehran, which lies on the plateau at the foot of the Elburz Mountains, receives only about 9 inches (23 centimeters) of rain a year. Average temperatures in the city range from 35 °F (2 °C) in January to 85 °F (29 °C) in July. Winter temperatures drop to freezing in the Dasht-e Kavir and the Dasht-e Lut. But summer temperatures in the deserts soar as high as 130 °F (54 °C). An average of about 2 inches (5 centimeters) of rain falls on the deserts yearly.

The Caspian Sea Coast is Iran’s only region of abundant rainfall. It receives about 40 inches (100 centimeters) of rain a year. Temperatures in the region seldom rise above 90 °F (32 °C) or drop below freezing.

Economy

The economy of Iran grew rapidly during the 1960’s and 1970’s. The government used part of Iran’s enormous oil revenues to finance many new businesses and industries. The revolution of 1979, however, damaged the Iranian economy. Thousands of highly trained workers opposed to the Islamic government left Iran. Many factories closed. A war against Iraq during the 1980’s and political unrest at home also disrupted the economy. Oil production and exports dropped.

Today, Iran’s economy is still largely centered on its oil production. However, service industries and agriculture also play important roles. Iran’s government controls most of the country’s economy, including the oil industry. Iran has a high unemployment rate. Many educated people work abroad.

Service industries

account for about half of Iran’s gross domestic product. Gross domestic product is the total value of goods and services produced within the country in a year. Service industries also account for about half of Iran’s employment. These industries include government agencies, hospitals, schools, and other institutions that supply services. Banks, insurance companies, restaurants, and many other business establishments also provide essential services. Other service industries include trade, transportation, and communication.

Agriculture

employs much of Iran’s total work force. Most of the land can not be farmed because of a severe water shortage. Iran must import much of its food. Wheat is an important agricultural product. Farmers also raise such crops as barley, dates, grapes, nuts, oranges, potatoes, rice, sugar beets, and tomatoes. Cattle are raised for meat and milk. Chickens provide eggs and meat. Sheep provide meat and wool.

Manufacturing

accounts for much of Iran’s gross domestic product and employment. The country’s chief manufactured products include food products, petroleum products, and petrochemicals. Iranian factories also produce automobiles, bricks, cement, pharmaceuticals (medicinal drugs), steel, and textiles.

Mining.

Even though mining employs less than 1 percent of all of Iran’s workers, it contributes much to the nation’s economy. Petroleum is by far Iran’s most important mineral product. The National Iranian Oil Company operates the oil industry. The company is owned by the government. The country has one of the world’s largest oil reserves. Iran is also a leading oil producer and exporter. Most of Iran’s oil is found in the southwest part of the country.

Iran also has one of the world’s largest natural gas reserves and is a leading producer of natural gas. The country has significant deposits of many other minerals. Iran mines coal, copper, gypsum, iron ore, lead, molybdenum, and zinc.

Fishing industry.

One of Iran’s chief fishing products is the eggs of sturgeon caught in the Caspian Sea. The eggs are used to make a salty delicacy called caviar. Iranian fishing crews also catch carp, catfish, whitefish, and white salmon in the Caspian. The Persian Gulf catch includes sardines, shrimp, sole, and tuna.

Trade.

Iran exports more than it imports. Crude oil accounts for the majority of the value of Iran’s exports. Most oil is exported to China and other Asian countries. The country also exports chemicals, fruits and nuts, and iron and steel. Its leading imports include chemicals, food, industrial machinery, iron and steel, and motor vehicles. Iran’s chief trading partners include China, Germany, India, Russia, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates.

Transportation and communication.

Rugged terrain has made it difficult and expensive to develop a modern system of transportation in Iran. Most of the country’s roads are paved. The government owns the country’s rail system. Tehran has a commuter rail system. Iran Air, a government-owned airline, flies within Iran and to some foreign countries. Tehran has the country’s chief international airport. Isfahan, Mashhad, Shiraz, Tabriz, and other cities also have international airports. Most of Iran’s trade is handled by Persian Gulf ports. Caspian Sea ports handle trade with central Asian countries.

The government strictly controls all newspapers, magazines, and radio and TV broadcasts. The government also restricts Internet access.

History

Early days.

The first major civilization in what is now Iran was that of the Elamites. They may have settled in southwestern Iran as early as 3000 B.C. In the 1500’s B.C., Aryans began migrating to Iran from central Asia. Eventually, two major groups of Aryans settled in Iran. One group settled in the northwest and founded the Kingdom of Media (see Media ). The other group lived in southern Iran, in an area that the Greeks later called Persis. The name Persia comes from Persis. Both the Medes and the Persians called their new homelands Iran, meaning land of the Aryans. By the 600’s B.C., the Medes had become rulers of the Persians.

The Achaemenid Empire.

About 550 B.C., the Persians overthrew the Medes. Cyrus the Great led the Persians. Cyrus was a member of a Persian dynasty (family of rulers) called the Achaemenid. By 539 B.C., Cyrus had conquered Babylonia, Palestine, Syria, and all Asia Minor. Cyrus’s son Cambyses added Egypt to the Achaemenid Empire in 525 B.C. In 522 B.C., Darius I became king. Under his rule, the empire prospered. Darius built roads and established shipping lines. He also introduced gold and silver coins. At its peak in 500 B.C., his vast empire stretched west into what is now Libya and east to what is now Pakistan. it extended from the Gulf of Oman in the south to the Aral Sea in the north.

After the mid-400’s B.C., the Achaemenid Empire declined under the rule of a series of weak kings. In 331 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered the empire. Alexander wanted to combine the Greek and Persian cultures to create a new world empire. However, he died in 323 B.C. without achieving his goal. One of his generals, Seleucus, founded a new dynasty, the Seleucid. The Seleucids governed Iran until about 250 B.C. Then armies from Parthia, a kingdom southeast of the Caspian Sea, conquered the country (see Parthia ).

The Sasanian dynasty.

In about A.D. 224, the Persians, led by Ardashir, overthrew the Parthians. Ardashir founded the Sasanian dynasty. It ruled Iran for more than 400 years. During that period, Iranian art flourished. The Sasanian kings also improved the country’s cities, roads, and irrigation system. But their reign was weakened by constant warfare with the Romans. Sasanian rule was ended by a new force of conquerors—Muslims from Arabia. For a more detailed history of Iran before the Arab conquest, see Persia, Ancient.

The rise of Islam.

Arabian armies conquered Iran in the mid-600’s. The Arabs gradually converted most Iranians to Islam. Arabic replaced Persian as the official language of government in Iran. But most common people continued to speak Persian. Persian was also used in literature. By the mid-800’s, Iran had become a world center of art, literature, and science. But Arab control weakened during the 900’s. Iran broke into a number of small kingdoms under various Iranian rulers.

By the mid-1000’s, Seljuk Turks from Turkestan had conquered most of Iran. The Seljuks and other Turkish tribes ruled until 1220. That year, the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, swarmed over Iran. They destroyed many cities and killed thousands of people. Iranian civilization declined under Mongol rule. During the 1400’s, the Mongols began fighting among themselves for power. They gradually lost control of Iran.

The Safavid dynasty.

In the late 1400’s and early 1500’s, the Safavids, a family of Persian descent, gained control over several regions in Iran. In 1501, the family’s leader, Ismail, was crowned king. Ismail founded the Safavid dynasty. The greatest Safavid king was Shah Abbas, who ruled from 1587 to 1629. He stopped invasions by Ottomans from central Asia and by Uzbek tribes from Turkestan. Shah Abbas and his successors strongly supported the development of architecture and other arts. Isfahan became the Safavid capital in 1598. It was known as one of the world’s most beautiful cities. Safavid kings ruled Iran until 1722. Then armies from Afghanistan invaded the country and captured Isfahan.

The rule of Nadir Shah.

During the 1730’s, Nadir Shah, a Turkish tribesman, drove the Afghans out of Iran and became king. He went on to conquer Afghanistan. In 1739, Nadir Shah took the city of Delhi in India. He brought back many treasures from India, including the jewel-encrusted Peacock Throne. Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1747. Various Iranian leaders then struggled for power. In the 1750’s, Karim Khan, of the Zand tribe, gained control of Iran.

The Qajar dynasty.

After Karim Khan died in 1779, war broke out between the Zands and the Qajars. The Qajars were a Turkoman tribe from the Caspian Sea region. During this period, Iran lost Afghanistan and other areas that Nadir Shah had conquered. The Qajars finally defeated the Zands in 1794. The Qajar dynasty ruled Iran until 1925. The Qajars established their capital in Tehran, where most of their supporters lived.

In 1804, Russia invaded Iran. Russia wanted to expand its territory and gain an outlet to the Persian Gulf. The war ended with the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813. In 1826, Russia invaded again, defeating Iran in 1827. In 1828, the two nations signed the Treaty of Turkomanchai. The agreement gave Russia the land north of the Aras River. In 1856, Iran tried to recapture its former territory in northwestern Afghanistan. But the United Kingdom controlled Afghanistan and declared war on Iran. In 1857, Iran and the United Kingdom signed a peace treaty. Under the treaty, Iran gave up all of its territorial claims to Afghanistan.

British and Russian influence in Iran increased during the rest of the 1800’s. In the early 1900’s, a British corporation, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, began to develop the oil fields of southwestern Iran.

During the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, Iranian intellectuals introduced new ideas of political freedom into the country. Many Iranians began to demand a constitutional government. In 1906, the Qajar monarch, Shah Muzaffar al-Din, was forced to give Iran its first constitution and a parliament, the Majlis.

World War I and Reza Shah.

Iran became a battleground during World War I (1914-1918), even though it remained neutral. Russian troops, defending the oil fields at Baku on the Caspian Sea, fought the Turks in northwestern Iran. A British army defended the Khuzestan oil fields against attack by Iran’s Qashqai people. The Qashqai rebels were led by German agents.

In 1921, Seyyed Zia al-Din Tabatabai, an Iranian politician and journalist, and Reza Khan, a cavalry officer, overthrew the Qajar government. In 1925, Reza became shah and changed his family name to Pahlavi. Reza Shah introduced many programs to modernize Iran and to free it from foreign interference.

The nationalist movement.

Iran declared its neutrality soon after World War II began in 1939. But the Allies wanted to use the Trans-Iranian Railway to ship war supplies from the United Kingdom to the Soviet Union. Reza Shah refused to cooperate. British and Soviet troops invaded Iran in 1941. They forced Reza Shah to give up the throne. His son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, became shah. The new shah signed a treaty with the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union that allowed them to use the railway. It also permitted them to keep troops in Iran until the end of the war.

The presence of foreign troops in Iran during the war stirred up nationalistic feelings among many Iranians. In the Majlis, a group of nationalists led by Mohammad Mosaddeq demanded an end to British control of the oil industry. In 1951, the Majlis voted to place the oil industry under government ownership and control. The prime minister refused to carry out the law. But he was dismissed and replaced by Mosaddeq.

In 1953, a British boycott of Iranian oil, together with a surplus of oil on the world market, made it impossible for Iran to sell its oil abroad. Iran suffered heavy financial losses. The shah tried to remove Mosaddeq from office. He failed at first and went into exile. After a few days, however, the shah returned to power with the help of Iranian supporters and the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Mosaddeq was arrested.

Reforms and growing unrest.

During the early 1960’s, the shah began a series of economic and social reforms known as the White Revolution (later called the Shah-People Revolution). His programs included a large-scale land reform program that redistributed the holdings of wealthy landlords among the peasants who worked the land. The shah promoted education. He improved social welfare services. He also gave women the right to vote. At the same time, he used Iran’s increasing oil revenues to develop many new industrial projects and to provide a base for future economic growth.

Politically, the shah exercised nearly absolute control over the government. His vast power aroused much opposition, especially from students and intellectuals. His critics denounced him for denying freedom of speech and other civil rights. They criticized him for using a secret police force—called the SAVAK—to crush opposition to his rule. They also claimed that his policies and government corruption were ruining Iran’s economy. Many conservative Muslims believed that the shah’s modernization programs violated traditional Islamic teachings.

Revolution and the Islamic Republic.

In the late 1970’s, the various opponents of the shah united under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Muslim religious leader. In January 1979, the shah left Iran after mass demonstrations, strikes, and riots against his rule. The next month, the revolutionaries took control of the government.

Khomeini declared Iran an Islamic republic. He and his followers began setting up a new government based on the teachings of Islam. For the first year after the revolution, a Revolutionary Council appointed by Khomeini carried out the new government’s policies. Hundreds of officials of the shah’s government were tried in revolutionary courts and put to death by firing squads. The Islamic government shut down newspapers and magazines. It banned political parties. It closed universities. It placed restrictions over the people’s personal freedoms. A new constitution made Khomeini the faqih (supreme leader) of Iran. In 1980, the Iranian people elected the first president and the first Majlis of the republic.

The new government was bitterly anti-American because the United States had supported the shah. In October 1979, President Jimmy Carter allowed the shah to enter the United States for medical treatment. On November 4, Iranian revolutionaries seized the United States Embassy in Tehran. They held a group of Americans—chiefly embassy workers—as hostages. The United States and many other countries denounced this action as a violation of international law. They demanded that the hostages be freed. The revolutionaries said they would release the hostages if the U.S. government returned the shah to Iran for trial. The United States refused to do so. The shah moved to Panama in December 1979 and to Egypt in March 1980. He died in Egypt in July 1980. The revolutionaries freed the hostages on Jan. 20, 1981. See Carter, Jimmy (The Iranian crisis).

The war with Iraq.

In 1980, Iran began fighting a war with Iraq over territorial disputes and other disagreements. Hundreds of thousands of Iranians were killed or injured. Over a million people were left homeless. Iraqi planes repeatedly bombed oil installations, industrial targets, and civilian centers in Iran. Iran and Iraq agreed to a cease-fire in August 1988. Negotiations for a peace treaty started shortly after the cease-fire began.

After Khomeini.

Ayatollah Khomeini died in 1989. Iran’s top religious leaders chose Ali Khamenei to succeed Khomeini as faqih. Khamenei had been Iran’s president. Hashemi Rafsanjani was elected Iran’s new president in 1989 and was reelected in 1993.

In June 1990, a major earthquake struck northwestern Iran. About 40,000 people were killed.

Iran faced serious economic and political problems in the 1990’s. The nation’s oil exports dropped because of a decrease in production capacity and lower demands in the world market. The decline in oil revenues made it difficult for Iran to pay for much-needed imports. Other economic problems in Iran included rising prices, high foreign debt, a sharp drop in the exchange value of Iran’s currency, and high unemployment.

Iran continued to have strained relations with the United States. Since the early days of the Iranian revolution, the United States had accused Iran of supporting international terrorism. During the 1990’s, the United States became concerned about Iran’s efforts to acquire nuclear technology. The United States feared that such technology might give Iran the ability to produce nuclear weapons. The United States worried that such weapons might then become available to terrorists or be used against Israel. In May 1995, U.S. President Bill Clinton issued an executive order that barred all U.S. trade with Iran. The order was designed to punish Iran economically for seeking to acquire nuclear technology. It was also intended to punish what the United States saw as Iran’s support for terrorism.

Political change.

After Khomeini’s death, conflicts and rivalries emerged among the country’s leaders. A growing number of people openly blamed government leaders for the mismanagement of the economy. They also criticized widespread corruption among government officials. In a general election held in 1997, Iranian voters elected Mohammad Khatami, a former minister of culture and a political moderate, as president.

In parliamentary elections in 2000, members of reform groups won a majority of seats in the Majlis. Measures supported by these groups included freedom of the press and less government influence over Iranians’ personal lives. In 2001, Khatami was reelected by a landslide. Khamenei and members of Iran’s ruling clergy resisted many reforms proposed by Khatami and the Majlis. The Council of Guardians rejected many reform bills. Cconservative judges shut down several reformist newspapers.

Recent developments.

In the early 2000’s, the U.S. government renewed its accusations that Iran was supporting terrorism and seeking to develop nuclear weapons. Iran said its nuclear activities were only for the purpose of producing electric power. In 2003, United Nations (UN) atomic energy inspectors criticized Iran for concealing some nuclear activities. In 2004, under international pressure, Iran agreed to suspend its enrichment of uranium. Enrichment is one of the steps involved in the preparation of uranium for use as a nuclear fuel.

In December 2003, a major earthquake struck the city of Bam in southeastern Iran. More than 40,000 people were killed.

In 2005, voters elected Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the conservative mayor of Tehran, as president. The Council of Guardians had disqualified large numbers of reformist candidates before the election.

In April 2006, Iran resumed uranium enrichment. The UN Security Council demanded that Iran stop enrichment, but Iran refused. In July, the Security Council again demanded that Iran suspend enrichment. Again Iran ignored the demand. In December 2006, the Security Council passed a resolution banning Iran from trading nuclear-related materials. In March 2007, the Council imposed additional sanctions on Iran because of its continued enrichment of uranium. In October 2007, the United States increased its sanctions against Iran, renewing charges that the country was supporting terrorism.

For the next several years, the United Nations, the European Union, the United States, and other nations imposed further sanctions on Iran. The sanctions punished Iran economically for continuing to disregard bans on nuclear enrichment, as well as for other offenses. The sanctions periodically included freezing international Iranian assets, restricting foreign trade, and limiting the actions of Iranian banks. The moves had devastating effects on the Iranian economy.

In 2009, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was reelected president. He defeated reformist candidate Mir Hussein Moussavi in a controversial election. Widespread protests and violence erupted in reaction to the election results. Ayatollah Khamenei and the Council of Guardians defended the validity of the election despite accusations of voter fraud and miscounts. Moussavi maintained that the election had been “rigged” and called for continued protests. In 2013, Iranian voters elected the moderate cleric (clergyman) Hassan Rouhani as president. Rouhani was reelected in 2017.

In late 2013, Iran signed an agreement to curb its nuclear program. International sanctions against Iran were eased as a result. In 2015, negotiations between Iran, the United States, and five other nations led to a deal to further limit Iran’s nuclear program. In return, remaining economic sanctions on Iran were lifted in 2016. In 2018, the United States, despite international opposition, withdrew from the nuclear deal. Following the withdrawal, tensions increased between the United States and Iran. The United States applied economic sanctions to Iran, and Iran began to exceed the agreement’s limits on uranium enrichment. Shipping was disrupted near the Strait of Hormuz, as several oil tankers were attacked, an action the United States blamed on Iran.

In November 2017, a strong earthquake struck near the Iran-Iraq border, killing over 500 people and injuring thousands more. The quake also damaged or destroyed thousands of buildings. In March and April 2019, record rainfalls in Iran caused severe flooding, especially in the south and southwestern parts of the country. More than 70 people were killed, and as many as 500,000 others were displaced by the floods, which damaged homes, farmland, and hundreds of roads and bridges.

In January 2020, a drone strike by the United States killed Qassim Suleimani, a top Iranian general, in Baghdad, Iraq. The United States had accused Suleimani of orchestrating militia attacks on U.S. targets in the Middle East. Iran retaliated by launching missiles at two military bases in Iraq that housed American troops. No soldiers were killed, but at least 100 troops suffered traumatic brain injury (concussion) as a result of the blasts. Hours after the missile attacks, a Ukrainian passenger airliner crashed as it left Tehran’s airport, killing all 176 people aboard. The Iranian government later admitted that Iranian military forces, on alert for a possible U.S. response, had mistakenly shot down the plane.

In 2020, Iran faced a public health crisis as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic (worldwide epidemic). COVID-19 is a respiratory disease caused by a coronavirus. The first cases of the disease in Iran were diagnosed in February 2020. To curb the outbreak, Iran’s government closed schools and restricted social activities. But it placed only limited restrictions on travel and businesses. In the following months, Iran experienced one of the worst outbreaks of COVID-19 in the Middle East. Iran began administering vaccines against COVID-19 in February 2021. By mid-2023, more than 7 ¹/₂ million people in Iran had gotten the coronavirus, and more than 145,000 had died from COVID-19.

In June 2021, voters elected Ebrahim Raisi, the conservative head of Iran’s judiciary, to become the next president. Voter turnout was the lowest it had been since 1979.

In September 2022, protests broke out in dozens of Iranian cities following the death in police custody of a 22-year-old Iranian woman named Mahsa Amini. On September 13, Amini had been arrested in Tehran by officers of Iran’s morality police, who enforce the nation’s strict dress code. The police arrested Amini for incorrectly wearing her hijab, the traditional headscarf worn by Muslim women. Though many Muslim women choose to wear the hijab, wearing one is required by law in Iran. Amini died in police custody on September 16. In the protests that followed, some women burned their headscarves. Many protesters were arrested, and over 500 were killed. The government restricted access to the internet and social media as part of an attempt to end the protests. The protests continued through the rest of 2022 and into 2023.

In May 2024, President Raisi and Iran’s foreign minister, Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, were killed in a helicopter crash in northwestern Iran. Vice President Mohammad Mokhber then became interim (temporary) president. Masoud Pezeshkian, a moderate lawmaker who supported reform, was elected president in July.