Jordan is an Arab kingdom on the East Bank of the Jordan River in the heart of the Middle East. The country is bordered by Syria; Iraq; Saudi Arabia; Israel; and the West Bank, a territory west of the Jordan River. Amman is Jordan’s capital and largest city.
Much of Jordan’s modern history has been shaped by events in an area often called Palestine. Today, Israel, the West Bank, and the tiny Gaza Strip cover this region. Jordan was once called Transjordan because it lay across the Jordan River from Palestine.
In 1950, Jordan annexed the West Bank. Jordan lost the West Bank during the Arab-Israeli war of 1967, and Israel occupied the territory. In 1974, Jordan officially gave up political responsibility for the West Bank. But Jordan continued to play important roles in the administration and financial support of the territory. In 1988, King Hussein of Jordan broke Jordan’s ties with the West Bank. In the 1990’s, Israel withdrew from parts of the West Bank. But in 2002, it reoccupied most areas from which it had withdrawn. See the History section of this article for details.
Jordan has a rapidly growing population. About 50 percent of the people are native Jordanians. Most of the others are Palestinians. More than 90 percent of the people are Muslims. Christians make up a small minority group in Jordan.
Jordan’s varied terrain includes deserts, mountains, deep valleys, and rolling plains. The country has a warm, pleasant climate, but receives little rain.
Jordan has few natural resources. It mines phosphates and potash but lacks the petroleum deposits of its Arab neighbors. Service industries, such as government and commerce, employ the largest number of workers in the country.
Government
National government.
Jordan is a constitutional monarchy. Its monarchs have belonged to the Hashemite family, which traces its ancestry back to Muhammad, the prophet whose life and teachings form the basis of Islam. The king of Jordan has widespread powers. He appoints a prime minister to head the government, as well as members of the Council of Ministers, or cabinet. The king also appoints a Senate to four-year terms. The Senate is one house of the National Assembly, Jordan’s legislature. The other house is the Chamber of Deputies. Its members are elected by the people to four-year terms. A few seats in the chamber are reserved for women. The king has the power to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies.
Local government.
Jordan is divided into 12 districts called governorates. A governor appointed by the king heads each district.
Courts.
Jordan’s judicial system consists of civil, religious, and special courts. Civil courts handle most commercial, criminal, and civil cases. Muslims and various Christian groups each have their own religious courts. These courts rule on personal and family matters, such as marriages, divorces, guardianship, inheritances, and wills. Special courts deal with technical legal matters. The king appoints all judges.
Armed forces.
Jordan has an army, an air force, and a small navy. The military employs a high percentage of Jordan’s work force, thereby placing a burden on the economy. But Jordan has fought wars with Israel and has faced rebellions by its own Palestinian population. Because of these threats, the government maintains large armed forces despite the cost.
People
Most Jordanians live in the fertile highlands of the northwest. About four-fifths of the people live in towns and cities with populations of 5,000 or more. Most Jordanians live in the fertile highlands of the northwest. About four-fifths of the people live in towns and cities with populations of 5,000 or more. Amman, Jordan’s capital and largest city, has over 1 million people. Other cities with more than 500,000 people are Az Zarqa and Irbid.
Ancestry.
Native Jordanian Arabs account for about half the population. The remaining population of Jordan consists mainly of Palestinian Arabs, most of whom are refugees of the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948 and 1967. Other Palestinians moved from the West Bank to Amman between the wars, when the West Bank was part of Jordan. Ethnic minorities in Jordan include small numbers of Armenian Christians and Circassian Muslims.
Languages.
Arabic is the official language of Jordan. English is also widely taught and spoken. The government prints many documents in Arabic and English. Ethnic minorities often speak their own language.
Way of life.
In urban areas, almost all homes and apartments have electric power and running water. Some urban neighborhoods are densely populated. But in general, living conditions are better than in many other developing countries.
About 10 percent of Jordan’s population lives in crowded Palestinian refugee camps set up by the United Nations. The refugees live in shelters made of concrete.
Most rural Jordanians live in villages and have homes built of stone and mud, or of concrete. Many villagers grow crops and raise goats and chickens. Other villagers work in construction and mining. Bedouin nomads make up less than 2 percent of the people. They live in tents and move from place to place with their camels and sheep in search of water and pasture. Many Bedouins have settled in towns and villages.
Most Jordanian men and women wear clothing similar to that worn by North Americans and Europeans. The men may cover their head with a cloth called a kaffiyyeh. Some women wear long, loose-fitting dresses. Some rural Jordanians, including Bedouin men and women, wear traditional flowing robes.
Food and drink.
Jordanians eat a variety of foods, including cheese, cracked wheat, flat bread, rice, vegetables, and yogurt. Chicken and lamb are popular meats. A traditional Jordanian dish called mansef features lamb cooked in yogurt and served on a large tray of rice. Popular beverages include coffee, fruit juices, mineral water, soft drinks, and tea.
Recreation.
Jordanians enjoy watching and playing various sports, particularly basketball, camel racing, horse racing, martial arts, and soccer. Jordanians are very social. Large families frequently gather for a meal or for a picnic in the country. Folk dances, such as the debke, are popular at family events.
Religion.
Islam is the official religion of Jordan. More than 90 percent of Jordan’s people are Muslims. Almost all of them follow the Sunni or orthodox branch of Islam. Most other Jordanians are Christians.
Islam deeply affects the lives of many Jordanians. Devout Muslims pray five times a day, attend a mosque (an Islamic house of worship), fast, give money or goods to the poor, and make a pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the sacred city of Islam.
Most of the Jordanian Christians are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Jordan has various other Christian groups, which include Roman Catholics and Protestants.
Education.
Jordan requires children to attend school through the ninth grade. Most children go to government schools. A United Nations agency operates schools for Palestinian refugees. Almost all of the adult population can read and write. 
Jordan has many community colleges, vocational schools, and technical institutions. Jordan also has several universities. Many Jordanians attend universities in other Arab countries, Europe, and the United States.
The arts.
Jordanian craftworkers make a variety of decorative and useful objects, including jewelry, coffeepots, daggers, and Islamic prayer beads. Many mosques and other buildings feature delicate geometric designs called arabesques. Other art forms include elaborate cross-stitch embroidery and beautiful Arabic calligraphy (fine handwriting).
Land and climate
Jordan has three main land regions: (1) the Jordan River Valley, (2) the Transjordan Plateau, and (3) the Syrian Desert.
The Jordan River Valley
is a deep, narrow valley that extends, in Jordan, from just south of the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea. The Jordan River flows through the center of the valley and ends in the Dead Sea. Summer temperatures in this region regularly exceed 100 °F. (38 °C). The valley receives little rain. But since the 1960’s, Jordan has developed an irrigation system that allows extensive cultivation of fruits and vegetables. The Jordan River Valley is part of the Great Rift Valley, a deep cut in Earth’s surface. Another part of the Great Rift Valley extends from the Dead Sea to Al Aqabah (see Great Rift Valley ). 
The Transjordan Plateau
rises steeply from the Jordan River Valley and the Dead Sea. The plateau covers a wedge-shaped area that begins at the Syrian border and narrows as it extends southward to the region around Ma’an. It consists of broad, rolling plains that have an average elevation of about 3,000 feet (900 meters) above sea level. Steep wadis (valleys) cut the Transjordan Plateau.
The plateau includes Jordan’s largest cities and most of the country’s farmland. Annual rainfall averages about 25 inches (64 centimeters) in the north. Rainfall on the southern plateau is less dependable and averages between 10 and 15 inches (25 and 38 centimeters) a year—barely enough to grow wheat. Average temperatures range between 64 and 86 °F. (18 and 30 °C) during the summer and between 40 and 52 °F. (4 and 11 °C) during the winter.
The Syrian Desert,
also called the northern Arabian Desert, is a vast wasteland to the east and south of the plateau. The desert receives less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) of rain annually. Summer temperatures sometimes reach 120 °F. (49 °C).
Economy
Jordan has a developing economy based on free enterprise. Service industries make up the largest part of the economy. The economy partially depends on foreign aid and on Jordanians who work abroad and send money back to their families.
Service industries
employ about three-fourths of Jordan’s workers and account for about two-thirds of the total value of economic production. The government and military employ many Jordanians. Others work in education, trade, and transportation. Hotels and restaurants benefit from the millions of tourists who visit Jordan each year. Most of these visitors are from other middle Eastern countries.
Manufacturing and mining
are also important to Jordan’s economy. Most of Jordan’s manufacturing occurs near Amman. Important manufactured products include cement, chemicals, clothes, fertilizer, food, pharmaceuticals (medicinal drugs), and refined petroleum.
Mining operations produce phosphates and potash, which are used in the production of fertilizer. Jordan is a leading producer of bromine, phosphate rock, and potash. Unlike most Middle Eastern countries, Jordan has no significant oil reserves.
Agriculture.
Because Jordan is mostly desert, only a small percentage of the land is cultivated. Most crops are grown in the Jordan River Valley. Leading crops include cabbages, citrus fruits, cucumbers, eggplants, grapes, melons, olives, potatoes, and tomatoes. Farmers also raise beef and dairy cattle, chickens for eggs and meat, and sheep. Modern farming methods have become increasingly widespread, especially in the Jordan River Valley.
Foreign trade.
Jordan imports more than it exports. Imports include food, iron, machinery, motor vehicles, and petroleum and petroleum products. The country’s main exports are clothing, fertilizer, pharmaceuticals, phosphates, and vegetables. Jordan’s chief trading partners include China, Germany, India, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and the United States.
Transportation and communication.
Jordan has a well-developed transportation system. Paved highways link Jordan with all its neighbors. Al Aqabah, Jordan’s only port, has been extensively developed to handle cargo shipped through the Red Sea. Amman has a major international airport.
Jordan’s daily newspapers are mainly published in Arabic. English-language daily newspapers are also published. Jordan Radio and Television, which is owned and operated by the government, broadcasts in Arabic, English, and French. The country also has privately owned radio stations. Although the government closely controls communications, there is more freedom of expression in Jordan than in many other Arab countries in the Middle East.
Energy.
Jordan depends on imported oil to generate most of its power. Natural gas and water power also produce energy. Electric power is available throughout almost all of Jordan.
History
Early days.
Written history first mentions what is now Jordan in about 2000 B.C., when Semitic nomads entered the region. By about 1200 B.C., four Semitic peoples—the Ammonites, Amorites, Edomites, and Moabites—farmed and traded in lands east of the Jordan River. During the 900’s B.C., the Israelites under Kings David and Solomon conquered and ruled the region. But Moabites led by King Mesha regained control about 850 B.C. Later, the Egyptians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians invaded and controlled the area. The Nabataeans, a trading people who spoke Arabic, came to power in the 400’s B.C. The Nabataeans ruled from their unique capital city carved out of the rose-colored stone cliffs of Petra. Their architecture and art were strongly influenced by the Greeks after about 331 B.C., when Alexander the Great conquered the area. After his death, the Seleucids ruled the northern part of present-day Jordan, and the Nabataeans controlled the southern part.
In the 60’s B.C., the Romans took control of Jordan. They built vast trading centers at Philadelphia (now Amman) and Gerasa (now Jarash). When the Roman Empire split in the late 300’s A.D., Jordan became part of the Byzantine Empire, also called the East Roman Empire.
Arab and Ottoman rule.
In 636, Arab Muslims from the Arabian Peninsula defeated Byzantine armies in the northern Jordan region. The conquering Arabs established their language and religion among the people who lived in the region. They developed an important route through Jordan for Islamic pilgrimages to Mecca.
At the close of the 1000’s, Christian crusaders from Europe conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, including Jerusalem and parts of Jordan. The region had great religious significance for both Christians and Muslims. In 1187, the Muslim leader Saladin drove out the crusaders. His successors were overthrown by Egyptian Mamluks in 1250.
In 1517, the Ottoman Empire easily defeated the Mamluks, and most of Jordan became part of the Ottoman Empire. During Ottoman rule, the region’s only attraction for outsiders was the pilgrimage route. Bedouins and peasant farmers inhabited the region. The Ottomans did not govern Jordan directly until the late 1800’s, when they brought Circassian families to settle in and near Amman. In 1908, a railway was completed along the pilgrimage route, stimulating Jordan’s economy.
Independence.
During World War I (1914-1918), Sharīf Hussein of Mecca in Saudi Arabia led an Arab revolt against Ottoman rule. With the help of the United Kingdom, the revolt led to the defeat of the Ottomans in the Middle East and the establishment of several Arab states.
After the war, the League of Nations appointed the United Kingdom to administer lands east and west of the Jordan River as the mandate of Palestine (see Mandated territory ). In 1921, the British gave the territory east of the Jordan partial self-government by making it an emirate called Transjordan. Abdullah, a son of Hussein, ruled Transjordan as emir (prince) under British supervision. In 1922, Transjordan became a mandate separate from Palestine. 
Abdullah made Amman the capital of Transjordan and established his authority with considerable help from the United Kingdom. In 1923, the United Kingdom declared that Transjordan should become an independent state. But the British kept control of the state’s defenses, finances, and foreign affairs. Transjordan gained complete independence in 1946, but still depended on the United Kingdom for economic aid. British officers commanded the Arab Legion, Transjordan’s army. In 1949, Abdullah renamed the country Jordan.
The Palestinian conflict.
In 1917, the United Kingdom issued the Balfour Declaration. This document supported the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine without violating the civil and religious rights of the non-Jewish population. At that time, thousands of Jews had immigrated to Palestine, and after World War I, tens of thousands more came. Many came from Europe during the 1930’s and 1940’s because of German persecution. The Jewish immigration led to fighting between Jews and Palestinian Arabs for control of the land.
Jordan became involved in the Palestinian conflict in 1948. That year, the British mandate of Palestine ended, and the Jews established the state of Israel. Jordan and other Arab countries at once went to war with Israel. When the war ended in January 1949, Israel occupied much of Palestine. Jordan held the West Bank, and Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan. In 1950, Jordan officially annexed the West Bank.
Jordan’s population of about 400,000 more than tripled as a result of the war. It gained about 400,000 Palestinian residents of the West Bank and about 450,000 Palestinian refugees from Israel. The Palestinian population caused political and economic tensions. Some Palestinians competed for power with East Bank Jordanians who controlled the government. The refugees burdened Jordan’s economy because of the food, shelter, and services they required. But some brought valuable skills and savings to Jordan and set up businesses.
By the mid-1950’s, Jordan began to develop petroleum-refining, cement, and phosphate industries. Other parts of the economy, including agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism, began a period of steady growth.
In 1951, Palestinians assassinated Abdullah. His son Talal succeeded him. But Talal was removed from the throne in 1952 because of mental illness. Talal’s oldest son, 17-year-old Hussein, succeeded him. But Husssein did not officially take up the duties of king until he turned 18 in 1953. 
During the 1950’s, Jordan remained unstable. Arab countries competed for political power in the Middle East, and the United States and the Soviet Union sought to extend influence in the region. In 1956, King Hussein replaced the Arab Legion’s British officers with Jordanians and renamed it the Jordan Arab Army. The army helped put down a plot to overthrow Hussein in 1957. In the late 1950’s, the United States became Jordan’s chief Western source of financial and military support.
Tensions between Israel and Arab countries, including Jordan, grew in the early 1960’s. Arabs and Israelis disagreed over rights to the waters of the Jordan River. Continuing problems of the Palestinian refugees led to the creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964. The PLO organized raids into Israel from Jordan and Lebanon, and Israel responded with raids into Arab territory. Also in 1964, Jordan and other Arab countries united their armies under one command.
The 1967 war.
In June 1967, Israel defeated Jordan, Egypt, and Syria in a six-day war. Jordan lost East Jerusalem and all of the West Bank to Israeli occupation. About 300,000 Palestinians—both refugees and permanent residents—who had been living in the West Bank fled east. Jordan’s economy suffered from the loss of West Bank farmlands and tourist attractions.
Civil war.
After the 1967 war, many Palestinian refugees joined guerrilla groups to fight Israel and regain their homeland. By early 1970, these forces represented an unofficial second government in Jordan and threatened to overthrow the monarchy. On Sept. 17, 1970, the Jordanian army attacked the Palestinian guerrillas. Syrian forces entered Jordan to support the Palestinians but later withdrew. Jordan’s army defeated the Palestinians within a month But fighting between the army and isolated guerrilla groups continued into 1971 and beyond. Drained by these ongoing battles, Jordan played a minor role in the 1973 Arab-Israeli war.
Relations with the West Bank.
At a meeting of Arab leaders in 1974, King Hussein lost influence in Palestinian affairs when the PLO was declared the only representative of the Palestinian people. Hussein and other Arab leaders agreed that the West Bank should become part of an independent Palestinian state in the event of an Israeli withdrawal. They gave the PLO responsibility for any West Bank territory from which Israel might withdraw. However, Jordan continued to play important administrative and financial roles in the West Bank. For example, the Jordanian government paid the salaries of many West Bank public service workers, including doctors and teachers.
Disagreements between Jordan and the PLO over Palestinian policy led to a major break in 1986. King Hussein tried to set up new leadership for the Palestinians. But the next year, the Palestinians demonstrated their loyalty to the PLO in an uprising against Israel’s occupying forces in the West Bank.
In 1988, Hussein broke Jordan’s political and administrative ties to the West Bank. He called for the PLO to take over the financial support and other functions that Jordan had handled.
Recent developments.
Jordan’s relations with some Arab countries became strained after it remained neutral during the Persian Gulf War of 1991. Jordan’s economy suffered after the war from a decrease in trade with Iraq and other Arab states. In 1994, Jordan and Israel signed a peace treaty that formally ended the state of war that had technically existed between the two countries since 1948. 
King Hussein died in 1999. He was succeeded as king by his son Abdullah II. Before taking the throne, Abdullah had been a career military officer. He is married to Queen Rania Al Abdullah, a Palestinian from the West Bank. Abdullah has promoted economic development and pushed for a number of social and political reforms. Queen Rania has led efforts to relieve poverty and improve education in Jordan and elsewhere.
After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, Abdullah criticized extremists who used religion to justify violence. He also stressed that terrorists did not represent Arabs or Muslims.
In 2011, antigovernment protests erupted in Amman and other cities. The protesters called for cuts in food and fuel costs and the removal of the prime minister. The king responded by replacing the prime minister as well as the entire Cabinet. The unrest in Jordan followed similar, but more violent, events in Tunisia, Egypt, and elsewhere in the region. 
As protests continued in 2012, the king called for early parliamentary elections the following year. Pro-government candidates won a majority of the seats. The Islamic Action Front, the political faction of the Muslim Brotherhood in Jordan, boycotted both the election and its results. The group claimed that Jordan’s electoral law is structured in such a way that it causes their supporters to be under-represented in the legislature. The Muslim Brotherhood is a political and religious movement in the Middle East that calls for Muslim nations to establish governments based on Islamic principles.
In the mid-2010’s, Jordan increased its participation in peace-keeping attempts in the Middle East. In 2014 and 2015, Jordan joined the United States and other Arab states in air strikes against Islamic State (IS) militants in neighboring Syria. The Islamic State is a radical militant group based in Iraq and Syria. Also in 2015, Jordan took part in air strikes led by Saudi Arabia on Houthi rebels in Yemen. The Houthi are a Shī`ite Muslim group that has been fighting the Yemeni government since the early 2000’s, contributing to instability in the Middle East.
In 2016, Jordan changed its electoral law to encourage the formation of political parties. The move was considered a step toward greater democracy. Such opposition groups as the Muslim Brotherhood returned to participate in elections. As a result, Jordan held its first elections for a proportionally representative parliament since 1989.
Jordan experienced an economic crisis in 2018. Rising costs and a controversial tax bill, which was later withdrawn by the government, led to protests and the resignation of the prime minister. In 2019, Jordan restored diplomatic ties with Qatar. Jordan, as well as several other Arab nations, had cut ties with Qatar in 2017, accusing that nation of supporting terrorism and establishing close ties with Iran. Qatar had sent economic aid to Jordan in 2018 and promised jobs in Qatar for Jordanians. Later in 2019, amid rising tensions with Israel, Jordan reclaimed two territories it had allowed Israeli farmers to use since 1994.
In 2020, Jordan faced the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic (global epidemic). The government put public health measures into place to combat the virus. However, the pandemic devastated Jordan’s tourism industry, which plays a large part in the nation’s economy, and unemployment surged. The International Monetary Fund agreed to lend the nation more than a billion dollars over four years to stimulate the economy and create jobs.
Despite the 2016 change in electoral law, in parliamentary elections held in November 2020, more than 90 percent of the elected did not have a political party affiliation. Instead, members of the new parliament primarily represented long-standing tribal affiliations and pro-government interests. Observers blamed the results on low voter turnout because of the pandemic, and on the huge number of candidates in the election and the confusing nature of their campaigns.
