Library

Library is an organized collection of books and other materials. Such materials may include both print and electronic texts, as well as media resources such as streaming videos, audiobooks, and online magazines.

Libraries play a vital role in the world’s systems of communication and education. The numerous resources and services that libraries provide help people carry out their work, studies, and leisure-time activities. Libraries rank among society’s most important and useful cultural institutions.

There are many types of libraries. A number of libraries work to meet the needs of all members of society, from children to senior citizens. Other libraries are designed to serve a specific organization or group, or to provide resources related to a particular topic or field, such as law or medicine. Many libraries develop programs to help people learn about their communities or about other cultures and civilizations. Some also maintain special collections of rare books, manuscripts, and works of art.

Libraries provide access to knowledge and information that has been accumulated throughout history. People of all ages and all walks of life—including students, teachers, scientists, business executives, and government officials—use library resources for their work. In addition, large numbers of people turn to libraries to satisfy a desire for knowledge, to pursue a hobby, or to read in their free time. Many people also take part in special programs and events at libraries. Such events may include discussions, concerts, lectures, exhibitions, and story hours.

See also Research Skills (Getting to know the library).

Library resources

Today’s libraries differ greatly from libraries of the past—not only in the resources and services they offer, but also in physical layout and atmosphere. In turn, future libraries will differ from those of today. This is so because libraries constantly strive to expand and perfect the services they provide and the contributions they make to society.

The contents of libraries have changed so much through the years that the word library itself is, in a sense, inaccurate. The word comes from the Latin word liber, which means book. It is used because libraries traditionally were largely collections of books. Today’s libraries house many books, of course. However, they also have a wide variety of other resources that communicate, educate, and entertain.

Variety of information.

Libraries provide access to information in a wide variety of formats. Library users can obtain information from books, online databases, electronic journals, print and online magazines, a variety of audio and video formats, and streaming services. Library users also provide internet access on provided computers or for library users’ personal devices.

In addition to traditional print books, a library may have large-type books, braille books, e-books (electronic books), and audiobooks. Librarians keep pace with the changing contents of libraries to serve as many people as possible. Their efforts have turned libraries into information resource centers, which house educational and recreational materials in a variety of forms.

The expansion of library resources greatly increases the library’s ability to communicate and educate. For example, people interested in classical music can access recordings and read books about famous composers. Individuals who enjoy art can use library computer terminals to search the internet for informative writings, pictures, and video presentations. Students of agriculture can read magazines and watch films on farming methods.

Immigrants to the United States can find pamphlets on becoming a citizen and read books about the United States in their original language. In addition, many people use libraries’ online resources, as well as print magazines and newspapers, to find the most up-to-date information on current events.

Types of libraries.

Librarians have developed various types of libraries to serve the needs of specific groups of people. The resources in these libraries are specially selected and organized to meet the needs of each group.

College, university, and research libraries maintain large collections of detailed research materials for advanced students and scholars. School libraries provide the information and materials needed by elementary and high school students. Public libraries tailor their collections to the general public. Government library collections are geared toward serving the needs of government officials.

Thousands of libraries seek to meet the needs of people working in specialized fields. Such libraries have been designed for advertising specialists, bankers, editors, engineers, lawyers, physicians, scientists, and other groups. The various library types mentioned in this section are discussed in detail later in the article.

Library services

Before the mid-1800’s, most libraries were privately owned. Only certain people—such as scholars, clergy, university students, and the wealthy—were allowed to use libraries. But years of effort by librarians and other concerned citizens have radically changed the role of libraries. The contributions of these people have made the library the vital service institution that it is today.

Providing materials.

Viewed historically, the library’s role of making resources available ranks among the most important contributions ever made to human culture and technology. Libraries have long selected, organized, and preserved materials that enable ideas, knowledge, and experiences to be passed on from generation to generation. Without this line of communication, cultural and technological developments would not be nearly as advanced as they are today.

Viewed as a factor in day-to-day life, library collections, and the access to information that libraries provide, serve as important resources in the education, work, and recreation of millions of people. To students, the library is a place where they can find information that helps them carry out school assignments. It is also a place where students can pursue knowledge beyond their classrooms, beyond their textbooks, and beyond their teachers. People can use libraries to continue learning throughout their lives.

Specialists in many fields rely on materials in special libraries for information they need in their work. Before going into court for a legal case, for example, a lawyer might examine legal resources on a library computer or review court cases in a law library. Doctors use medical libraries to obtain information they need to treat unusual or complicated diseases. Many business executives find that library materials help them make informed decisions about their work.

Many people fill their leisure time using library materials. Reading, viewing films, browsing the internet, and listening to recordings rank among the most popular leisure-time activities, and libraries supply materials for all of them.

Large numbers of people use libraries to help them pursue their hobbies. For example, stamp collectors can find books, pamphlets, websites, and other resources to aid them. Amateur furniture makers can find instructions for building various pieces of furniture. Other people can visit a library to browse for something that will capture their interest and provide an escape from the day-to-day world. Someone who works in an office, for example, might find that the novels in a library offer a good way to unwind after a busy day.

The job of providing resources for library patrons, and helping them make the best use of those resources, is a challenging one. To do it well, a librarian must stay aware of new materials and developments in technology. The librarian evaluates vast amounts of materials—either through personal inspection or by reading reviews—and decides which ones the library should make available to its patrons.

Because library budgets are limited, the amount of desirable material always exceeds the amount that libraries can afford. Therefore, a librarian must have skill in money management, good judgment, and the ability to keep informed about library developments. Many libraries work in collaboration with other libraries so that users have access to more resources than a single library can provide.

Assisting patrons.

The service provided by librarians goes far beyond obtaining and arranging library materials. Librarians help anyone who wants assistance in finding information. In all kinds of libraries, this service involves teaching people how library resources are organized, showing them how to operate computers and other equipment, helping them find information to meet their needs, teaching them how to evaluate online resources, and supplying answers to their questions. If a library lacks the material a patron needs, the librarian may direct the patron to a source that has the material. Sometimes a librarian obtains items from an interlibrary loan system, which is an arrangement among libraries to share books and other materials.

Many libraries have a question-answer service called a reference service or information service. A reference librarian may be called on to answer any kind of question. These include basic reference questions, such as “Who was the first vice president of the United States?” or “What is the population of British Columbia?” Other questions require more descriptive answers, such as telling how a hummingbird hovers or how wastepaper is recycled.

Some libraries have librarians who receive and answer basic questions by telephone or over the internet. Such services allow library patrons to obtain information quickly and easily from their own homes.

Many librarians participate in community-service activities. Librarians, for example, often help community organizations prepare programs on such social issues as drug abuse or environmental pollution. A number of libraries provide meeting rooms for community organizations.

Active community service.

All libraries serve some kind of community—a town, city, state, nation, school, college, organization, or business. A library primarily serves by providing access to information and assisting patrons. But librarians also serve their communities in a variety of other ways.

Public libraries sponsor a variety of activities. These activities include story hours for children, career classes for teenagers, technology training, and book discussion groups. A number of libraries offer lecture programs or display works by local artists. Libraries may also hold classes for immigrants and provide programs to help people learn to read. Some libraries sponsor tax-preparation services.

Librarians often take materials to people in the nearby community. Many libraries have an active social media presence and reach out to the community with updates and announcements. Some libraries operate a bookmobile service, which carries materials throughout cities, towns, and rural areas. Librarians visit people in hospitals, prisons, rural homes, centers for senior citizens, and other places that may not have adequate resources available. In the inner city, librarians may set up collections in social service agencies, stores, or homes. Librarians often broadcast useful information on social media for people who cannot easily visit the library.

School libraries supply materials that students and teachers need for their work. The librarians teach students how to use a library and how to locate and evaluate information—skills that will benefit them throughout life. School librarians may also take part in the development of new teaching plans.

Government libraries supply public officials with the resources they need to carry out their work and serve their communities. Many government libraries use information technologies to improve public access to government information, publications, and services.

See also the following sections of this article for discussions of library services: Library (Public libraries) (School libraries) (College, university, and research libraries) (Government libraries) (Special libraries).

Other features

The contents and services of libraries have improved dramatically through the years. But the improvements extend even further. Librarians today realize that pleasant, comfortable surroundings help patrons in their studies. Many libraries of the past would seem dark and unattractive by today’s standards. Modern libraries are planned so there is plenty of light from windows and artificial lighting systems. The arrangement of furniture and fixtures makes libraries pleasant and easy to use. Some library buildings include coffee shops, meeting places, and comfortable lounge areas. Many modern libraries rank among the most attractive buildings in their communities.

Librarians today provide easier access to materials and resources than ever before. For example, many libraries now use an open-stack or open-shelf system. This system permits people to look up and review library material firsthand. The system differs from the older closed-stack or closed-shelf system, under which people must ask librarians to find material for them.

In addition, libraries help people become familiar with new technologies. Librarians may teach people to locate information with discovery tools which provide access to local collections, online resources, and materials in other libraries. Most libraries also provide internet access and personal computers for use by patrons.

Challenges and problems

In spite of all their progress, libraries—like many institutions in today’s complex world—face a number of challenges. The major challenge facing most libraries today is how to respond to the rapid growth of technology, particularly with regard to online resources. Other challenges include finding adequate finances to support library services and developing security measures to protect valuable library materials. Libraries must also address legal issues related to the use of copyrighted materials. In addition, they face the controversial issue of what types of physical and electronic resources, if any, a library might not allow patrons to access. Librarians must also find ways to save decaying books in many of the world’s libraries.

The growth of information and technology.

Each year, more information becomes available about every subject in the world. As a result, the amount of material in print doubles every 5 to 10 years. But that pales in comparison to the amount of electronic data that is annually produced. Since the late 1990’s, digital storage of information—data, videos, emails, social media posts, articles, websites—has grown at such a rate that some experts believe that the total amount of information in the world doubles every 18 months, or even every year.

The growing amount of information in modern society poses challenges for librarians. It means that librarians must keep informed about more materials than ever before. As a library increases its purchases, the librarian’s job of arranging and storing materials becomes harder. The large amount of information available can also make it difficult to locate specific resources.

Libraries store some collections in digital form on local or leased computer servers. But most digital information is now accessed remotely, via subscriptions to online databases or other electronic information resources. Some information is available through open access resources, which are available to all at no cost.

Many libraries participate in library networks to deal with the growth of information. In a library network, computers at different libraries are connected so that they share catalogs, materials, and services. For example, a patron might use a library network to locate a certain book about Latin American literature. The user can then request an interlibrary loan of the book or a photocopy or fax of certain pages.

Some library networks serve many libraries. The OCLC (Online Computer Library Center), with headquarters in Dublin, Ohio, serves thousands of participating libraries throughout the world. Other networks serve only a certain kind of library, such as a research or academic library. Many library networks are organized around a specific geographical area. For example, libraries throughout New England and the Middle Atlantic and Southeastern states participate in a network called LYRASIS.

Libraries have responded to the vast increase in digitized information by focusing more attention on electronic resources. Helping library patrons navigate the vast and complex world of modern information abundance is one of the most important jobs for today’s librarians. These same technological advances have also changed the daily work of librarians who order, catalog, and circulate materials.

Although technology provides many useful tools for librarians, it also presents challenges. Access to digital information via web sources and social media is available to almost everyone, and while there is a great deal of helpful and accurate information available on the internet, there is also much false and inaccurate information. Some of these mistakes are honest and accidental. Other falsehoods are intentional, representing an individual or group’s attempt to spread false information about topics or beliefs they hold to or disagree with. Librarians are responsible for helping patrons learn information literacy—that is, how to distinguish between online sources that provide accurate, reliable information and those with incorrect, misleading information.

Finances.

Libraries today face many financial difficulties. In many countries, public libraries and public school libraries receive most of their funds from taxes. Local taxes are the traditional source of funds, though state and federal governments also have contributed to the development of these libraries. Other libraries are privately supported by the organizations that run them and by private donors.

The funds available from both public and private sources are limited, and all libraries work within budgets. Rising costs for salaries, materials, and equipment, along with increased demands for library services, can put a severe strain on library budgets. The librarian’s job of choosing the best available resources and the most useful services for a library thus becomes increasingly difficult. In addition, all libraries—whether their funds come from public or private sources—must compete with other institutions and other parts of society for the available funds.

Security.

Each year libraries lose large amounts of valuable materials through theft. Some libraries have adopted security systems to fight this problem. Under one such system, people leaving the library are required to pass through a turnstile at which a guard is stationed. The guard tries to detect anyone who is leaving the library with material that has not been checked out. Some libraries use electronic and magnetic devices to detect attempted theft. If a person tries to leave the library with an item that has not been checked out, the item sets off an alarm at the library exit. Another version of electronic protection involves radio frequency identification (RFID) technology. RFID chips can track books, alerting library workers when they have been removed without being checked out. Some librarians object to the use of RFID technology, believing it could be used to intrude on library patrons’ privacy.

The security of information systems is a growing concern for libraries today. Criminal computer programmers, known as hackers, try to break into computer systems. Some hackers work for profit. Other hackers enjoy creating damage by such activities as stealing information or damaging databases. Libraries use computer software barriers and other methods to protect their information systems.

Photocopying.

Many people need only parts of books, magazines, newspapers, and pamphlets. Photocopying is a valuable aid to librarians and library users because it enables them to make copies of these materials. For example, people doing major research projects may need material from parts of dozens of books. These people can make copies of the information they need from each book. The device most commonly used to make photocopies is the electrostatic copying machine (see Copying machine).

Copyright law regulates the reproduction of published material by photocopying. In the United States, as in most other countries, copyright law provides for some photocopying by libraries or users without permission from or payment to the holder of the copyright. But most copyright rules forbid the copying of published materials in an attempt to avoid buying them. Some librarians believe that restrictions on photocopying hamper public use. Publishers respond that people may do any amount of photocopying they wish if they obtain permission and pay a fee to the holder of the copyright.

Many libraries now offer digital versions of parts of their collection. Articles and book chapters can sometimes be downloaded from online resources to create a digital copy. Libraries also offer scanning devices to create digital copies of print items. Digital copies of materials are subject to the same copyright laws as are physical photocopies.

Censorship and policy issues.

The question of censorship is one of the most sensitive issues facing librarians. Some people believe that certain material should not be published and, if published, should not be available in libraries. Such materials include many works dealing with religion or sex and works that promote illegal activities or certain political or social views. Other people oppose all censorship. They maintain that censorship takes away the right to free expression and keeps people from developing creative ideas. Librarians may face criticism for having certain works available or for allowing access to websites that some people consider inappropriate. At the same time, they may also receive complaints if they exclude certain works or heavily regulate internet use.

Most libraries have policies that are designed to uphold basic values and to provide standards for library practices. Some policies may provide specific guidelines for the handling of controversial material. Others may seek to ensure the freedom of expression, the protection of patrons’ privacy, or equal library access for all patrons. Many library organizations—including the American Library Association—have a code of ethics for librarians.

Aging books

are a problem for library collections worldwide. Many libraries have large numbers of books made from wood pulp paper, which some publishers have used since the 1850’s. Wood pulp paper produces acid that causes books to age quickly, making pages so brittle that they crumble when someone touches them.

Librarians, library organizations, and other groups work to save the information in aging or fragile books. In some cases, librarians transfer information to other formats, such as digital files. Scientists are developing methods to remove acid from paper, and librarians try to educate book publishers on the risks of wood pulp paper.

Public libraries

Public libraries serve a far wider range of patrons than do other kinds of libraries. These libraries aim to serve all members of a community, from children to senior citizens. People use public libraries for schoolwork, business, and leisure-time activities. Public libraries must therefore offer a wide variety of books and other materials and provide many services for members of the community. Many also must employ staff members who specialize in serving various age groups.

Kinds of public libraries.

Public libraries range in size from huge big-city libraries with dozens of branches to small-town libraries that occupy only one room. No matter what their size or where they are located, all public libraries have the same goal—to be of maximum service to their community. Dedicated librarians care for both library resources and the people who use them. Through their efforts, they make every library an active service institution.

To meet the needs of a large urban area, a big-city library must have a vast collection of books, multimedia resources, computers, and other materials. It also must have branch libraries that serve people in their own neighborhoods. But outside of big cities, a public library does not need to be large to serve its community. A small library housed in a room or two can play an effective role if it maintains a good collection of basic reference books, subscribes to online materials and magazines of use to its patrons, and provides access to useful new materials and resources.

The materials in most large public libraries are organized into subject areas, such as history, science, and sports. These libraries also have special sections for children, adults, and, often, young adults. In addition, they may have specialized departments to serve the research needs and the industrial and scientific interests of the community.

Services for children.

A good children’s librarian makes the public library an exciting place. The librarian’s friendly, understanding attitude can make the children’s department fun and interesting. The librarian arranges the department so young patrons can use it easily. Desks, chairs, tables, shelves, and water fountains are at convenient heights for children, and the room may have posters and other colorful decorations that make it warm and appealing.

The children’s librarian may conduct story hours, book clubs, computer activities, and other programs to help young patrons enjoy themselves and develop an interest in the library and its materials. The librarian may also work with parent and community organizations, nearby schools, and other groups to establish programs for the education and recreation of children. Summer programs keep children interested in books and other materials during vacation.

Services for young adults.

Librarians know that teenagers need special attention because they have different needs and interests than children or adults. Some large public libraries have separate departments for young adults. Here, the librarian helps teenagers continue to develop reading interests that will carry over into adulthood.

Young-adult departments feature materials on careers, sports, travel, and other subjects that teenagers find interesting. Many teenagers are interested in studying their own cultural backgrounds or reading about popular culture and entertainment. As a result, librarians try to obtain a wide variety of materials dealing with these subjects. Librarians in young-adult departments, as well as in children’s departments, must be able to guide users to suitable books in the library’s other departments when necessary.

Librarians for young adults, like those for children, conduct programs to encourage library use. Such programs might involve discussions of books, films, popular music, and current social issues that young adults find particularly interesting.

Services for adults.

The needs of adults, like those of children and young adults, change and expand constantly. Developments in every field of knowledge make it increasingly important that adults continue their education after leaving school. Public libraries can play an important role in adult education. In addition, the public library is an important source of materials for leisure-time activity.

A public library maintains a wide selection of resources for adults. The selection should include up-to-date reference materials (both in print and online), such as almanacs, atlases, encyclopedias, and government publications. The selection should have nonfiction works that cover the whole broad range of people’s interests as well as fiction of the past and present.

Many adults make use of the other services that public libraries offer. They can search the back issues of magazines and newspapers to find articles on specific subjects. A librarian might help a family use the internet to research a major appliance or a car that it wants to buy. Public libraries in the United States also provide tax forms and other information from the government. In some states, public libraries provide voter registration and information about political candidates. Many public libraries lend audio and video media, sheet music, paintings, and even games, tools, and other handy objects. Reference librarians often help patrons answer specific questions.

Services for special groups.

Public libraries serve the needs of special groups, such as people with disabilities. Many libraries, for instance, distribute braille books for people who are blind. Libraries may also provide audiobooks for individuals who cannot use regular books because of vision problems, paralysis, or other disabilities. In addition, modern library buildings have ramps at the entrances so that people who use wheelchairs and others who have difficulty using stairs can enter and leave easily.

Libraries also seek to address the needs of senior citizens. Many people nearing retirement turn to a library for help in planning their future. They seek information on recreation, health, travel, and financial matters. Librarians prepare booklists for senior citizens and may hold meetings where older people can discuss their interests and problems. Most public libraries make books in large print available to people with failing eyesight, which is a problem for many elderly people. Many libraries offer special programs that teach senior citizens to use computing technology and online resources.

A good public library can become an information source for many groups in the community. Librarians may conduct film programs, group discussions, talks on library materials, and other activities for various community organizations. A public librarian might prepare a special website or booklist to help members of a particular organization learn more about their cause. Community organizations often hold meetings at public libraries.

Many public libraries make a special effort to provide materials on education for teachers, as well as research materials for business and industrial groups. They also have helpful resources for people seeking employment. Many public libraries provide special resources for individuals who are learning to read or who are learning to speak English. Some libraries provide materials in a number of different languages to meet the needs of diverse communities.

Spreading the service.

A major goal of public librarians is to make their services available to everyone. Bookmobiles and branch libraries help spread public library service. Many libraries use websites, local television, and social media to provide services to people who cannot visit the library, such as senior citizens. As another step toward this goal, libraries might participate in library networks or interlibrary loan systems. Such networks and systems have made important contributions to the distribution of services and materials.

Large libraries try to help smaller ones provide a wider range of services. For this reason, counties and regions often have their headquarters library in the county seat, which is frequently near many small-town libraries. The headquarters library places books in small-town libraries—and even in grocery stores and gasoline stations in areas that lack libraries. A headquarters library—and other public libraries as well—may also deliver books by mail or messenger.

Administering a public library.

Managing a public library—like managing any complex organization—requires skill, experience, and the ability to deal with people effectively. A director heads the staff of a public library. The director is usually responsible to the board of trustees, the group that sets policies for the library. In places that have no library board, the director may report to the community’s top government official.

Most public libraries in the United States are administered by boards of trustees that consist of business executives, civic leaders, and other interested citizens. Voters elect most library boards. However, some boards are appointed by a local government official.

The director has the responsibility of carrying out the policies set by the library board. In practice, the director often takes the lead in suggesting policies to the board. For this reason, the director and the members of the board must have confidence in one another.

The director, working in cooperation with the library’s staff, prepares the budget for the library. The budget, typically, is then submitted to the board and the local government for approval. In some cases, the director must justify the proposed budget or argue against budget cuts. After the budget is established, the director makes sure the money is spent wisely and in accordance with the policies set by the board.

The director is responsible for the public relations of the library. The director and the staff try to generate public interest through social media posts, newspaper articles, radio interviews, television programs, and other publicity. The director also guides the library staff in the selection of library materials. Another important duty of the director involves dealing with procensorship and anticensorship groups.

A large public library may have separate divisions for adult services, young-adult services, and children’s services. Additional departments may be devoted to extension services, such as branch libraries and bookmobiles; services to special groups, such as immigrants and elderly people; and audio and visual materials, including CD’s and DVD’s. Other divisions may handle public relations efforts; personnel issues; computer and equipment maintenance; and various business functions. In a small public library, all of these duties may be the responsibility of the director and a few assistants.

Supporting the public library.

Public libraries, like all institutions, must have adequate funds to provide their services. The funding needs for public libraries vary from one community to another. Many public libraries in the United States spend between $20 and $60 a year for each member in their communities.

Salaries for librarians and other staff members usually make up the largest part of a library’s budget. Public libraries in the United States spend about 65 percent of their annual budget for salaries, 10 percent for new materials, and 25 percent for maintenance and miscellaneous expenses.

Local taxes are the chief source of money for public libraries. Some cities set aside money for libraries out of their general funds, and others collect special taxes for the libraries. The funding that public libraries receive through local taxes can vary widely from one community to another. A few public libraries receive money from private sources.

Private citizens can assist public libraries in a variety of ways. Many communities have a local group—sometimes called Friends of the Library—that helps raise money for the library and acts as a public relations channel for it. Such citizen groups work to publicize library services and to remind the public of the importance of the library to the community.

Public libraries must compete for funds with other important public institutions in a community, such as the fire, police, and sanitation departments. As a result, some communities do not have—or do not set aside—enough money to provide adequate library service. Funding problems and rising costs of operation have created problems for many public libraries. Many libraries are unable to provide the resources that their communities need. Some have been forced to cut back their hours of service.

Various levels of government have taken steps to help libraries meet their increasing financial needs. Some states supplement local library budgets with state funds. The state may provide funds to a well-organized local library so that it can serve a larger number of communities in its area. In this way, smaller communities can have the advantages of services provided by large public libraries.

Since the mid-1900’s, the United States government has become increasingly important in helping public libraries. In 1956, Congress passed the Library Services Act to improve library service in rural areas. Under the act, the federal government agreed to provide millions of dollars in grants to the states. The grants were to be used for the building and support of public libraries.

The Library Services Act was later renamed the Library Services and Construction Act, and eventually the Library Services and Technology Act. Major amendments to the act have expanded the program to include aid to both urban and rural libraries. The program has also been changed to include grants for increasing services to prisoners, the elderly, people with disabilities, and other special groups; the purchase of library materials and technology; and the development of interlibrary loan systems.

The Museum and Library Services Act of 1996 altered the role of the federal government in supporting public libraries. The act established the Institute of Museum and Library Services, a federal agency that supports museums, libraries, archives, and other facilities. The Institute of Museum and Library Services administers the Library Services and Technology Act.

School libraries

School libraries are essential to the teaching and learning activities of a school. Teachers need resources that will help them improve classroom instruction. Students must have access to resources that will answer questions on homework or in research projects. The quality of a school, to a great extent, depends on the work of a good school library.

School libraries serve as centers for a wide variety of educational media. Publications include books, online databases and electronic journals, magazines, and newspapers. Audio and visual materials include games, maps, photographs, digital music (including CD’s), films, DVD’s, realia (real objects, such as coins or military medals), and various internet resources. Most school libraries have computers with access to the internet and other electronic equipment available for student use. Because school libraries contain these various media, some people call them school library media centers. Others refer to school libraries as learning resource centers or instructional materials centers.

The media available in libraries—and assistance from school librarians—enable students to learn at their own pace. For instance, a student may learn by creating his or her own website or by preparing a multimedia presentation for a history project. Teachers often assign projects that involve interactive materials to make learning more exciting.

School librarians are sometimes called media specialists. They select materials for the library and help students and teachers effectively use its resources. For example, a school librarian might guide a student to books and websites useful for a particular assignment. School librarians might also help young people find enjoyable books to read in their free time. School librarians should have specialized training in librarianship and familiarity with all types of information sources. They should be prepared to help students find, evaluate, and use information from these sources. School librarians should also have teaching skills, because they often work closely with educators.

Many school systems provide services for their libraries. For instance, a school system may hire a school library supervisor to plan media programs in individual libraries. The supervisor might coordinate the placement of advanced technology in school libraries, such as online services and library networks.

Elementary school libraries

provide many children with their first chance to use and enjoy a library. Children come to the library to browse, borrow materials, listen to stories, and find information for hobbies or classroom assignments. In the past, young children did little library research. But many schools today rely on materials in their libraries to develop creativity and reasoning skills in young students.

A good elementary school library provides a wide range of material for students and teachers. If a fifth-grade class is studying Mexico, the school library can help the teacher show films about Mexican life or play CD’s of Mexican music. The teacher may instruct the students to research Mexico at the library, encouraging them to explore all the available resources. In the library, the students may also work together in small groups to discuss their research or watch documentary films. Some libraries have separate rooms for group activities.

Middle school and junior high school libraries

serve students who are growing out of childhood and into their teens. These libraries try to keep alive the enthusiasm that younger students bring to ideas, information, and materials. To do this, librarians expand their collections to fit many interests and abilities.

Teachers in middle school and junior high school commonly assign more independent and small-group research projects than do teachers of lower grades. For this reason, libraries that serve higher grades cover a wider variety of subjects. Middle school and junior high school librarians work with students to help them locate and analyze materials. Of course, school librarians continue to find good books for leisure-time reading as students grow older.

High school libraries

differ from elementary, middle, and junior high school libraries in two chief ways. Most of them are larger than other school libraries because high schools usually have more students. High school libraries also cover a more complex range of subjects than libraries for lower grades. A library in a large high school might have separate departments—sometimes called resource centers—for languages, mathematics, science, and social studies.

In high school, students work on more research and independent study projects than in lower grades. These skills are important for students who plan to enter college after graduation. High school librarians make sure that students know how to find materials using a wide range of resources, including various internet sources. Some high school libraries have studios for making video or audio recordings.

Many high schools have library clubs. Members of these clubs may assist in the work required to run a library, such as selecting materials or maintaining a website. Club members may also read aloud to younger students or tutor them in writing skills.

Families and local businesses often become involved in high school libraries. Parents may volunteer to help students use library resources. Many schools also provide library access to entire families and offer extended weekend and evening hours. Local businesses may supply free computers or computer software. Some businesses teach classes on using new technology.

School library standards.

Many schools have good libraries, though many others are unable to provide adequate facilities. In the United States, some public elementary schools do not have a central library. In these schools, library books are kept inside the individual classrooms. Other schools have libraries but lack the money needed to purchase up-to-date materials or to employ a librarian.

Librarians and other educators have long called on schools to meet certain library standards. In the United States, various states and associations have established library standards. These standards explain the kinds of materials and resources that school libraries should have. The standards also provide guidelines for open communication between librarians, teachers, and administrators.

The U.S. government grants money for the improvement of school libraries. The National Defense Education Act of 1958, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the Higher Education Act of 1965, and the Museum and Library Services Act of 1996 have provided funds for library resources and education for librarians. However, many people point out that government funding has not kept pace with the rising costs of computers, electronic resources, and other materials used in libraries.

College, university, and research libraries

College and university libraries.

The library is a major resource of any modern institution of higher education. College students study such a vast, fast-changing body of knowledge that few courses can be taught using only textbooks. Most require a wide variety of print and electronic resources. Research occupies a significant place in life at colleges—both two- and four-year schools—and at universities. The library has a vital role in this search for knowledge. It serves as a workshop for the entire college or university, students and faculty alike.

A college or university library is a complex institution. It must have large quantities of materials to meet the demands of both students and faculty. Such materials include online databases and electronic journals, books, magazines, newspapers, photographs, and multimedia resources. Many university libraries have collections that are devoted to highly specialized subjects. For example, the libraries on the various campuses of the University of California have special research collections on astronomy, oceanography, California history, citrus fruits, East Asia, early English literature, and Latin America. Other university libraries have separate buildings for rare books or original manuscripts.

A large university may have as many as 50 or more libraries in various departments, schools, and branches. An entire library may be devoted to a single field of study, such as biology, education, music, or psychology. Such specialization of libraries helps students locate in-depth materials on major areas of study.

Since the 1960’s, however, colleges and universities have moved away from highly specialized libraries. Many libraries today cover broad areas, such as the physical sciences or the humanities. These libraries enable students and professors to find information in various related fields. For example, a music student can easily research the historical events during a particular musician’s career in this type of library.

College and university libraries must make new information immediately available to their patrons. But information increases faster today than at any other time in history. For this reason, college and university libraries have expanded the materials they carry and are increasingly providing access to electronic resources. Many schools have rebuilt their libraries to hold more books, to provide more space for collaborative learning, and to allow for a larger number of computers.

Research libraries.

Many libraries collect materials and provide access to resources that support the needs of scholars and other advanced researchers. Some research libraries may collect materials related to important scientific findings worldwide. Others may contain original manuscripts of early literary works. Research libraries may be a part of colleges or universities. Independent and government libraries also serve as research libraries.

Some of the most famous research libraries function as independent institutions. The Morgan Library & Museum in New York City specializes in fine arts and in early printed books and manuscripts. The Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, D.C., has one of the world’s great collections on the Elizabethan period of English history.

Other private research libraries include the Newberry Library in Chicago, which specializes in history, literature, and the fine arts; the Linda Hall Library in Kansas City, Missouri, specializing in science and technology; and the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, which is rich in literature, early printing, and the fine arts. Some business organizations also administer independent research libraries.

Many government libraries have outstanding collections of materials for research. In the United States, government libraries include the Library of Congress, the National Library of Medicine, and the National Agricultural Library. These libraries are discussed in the Government libraries section of this article.

Most public libraries do not aim to support scholarly research. But some have collections that are helpful to scholars, such as the Cleveland Public Library’s collections on folklore and on Asian history. Many scholars also use the New York Public Library and the Boston Public Library for their research.

Research libraries face a variety of challenges. They must continue to provide in-depth resources to researchers as the amount of information rapidly increases. Thousands of new books, magazines, and other resources are published each day throughout the world. In addition, books and magazines for researchers have become much more expensive.

No one library can own all the material that researchers might request. Researchers often need rare, out-of-print books and materials published in foreign languages. Some researchers use letters or other original documents written by important people. Researchers often keep up with the latest research and discoveries by accessing electronic resources over the internet. To serve as many scholars as possible, research libraries cooperate in sharing, purchasing, and storing various materials and resources.

Shared catalogs and national databases of library holdings enable scholars to find the libraries that carry a particular document. The Library of Congress publishes the National Union Catalog, a list of books, maps, pamphlets, magazines, and other works in a large number of Canadian and U.S. libraries. Many libraries also make their online catalogs and discovery tools available via the web. A researcher who finds materials at another library can request an interlibrary loan.

Libraries also cooperate in buying books and other materials and in licensing electronic resources. For example, the Library of Congress operates a variety of overseas offices and programs for acquiring foreign publications. Some research libraries also cooperate in housing valuable but seldom-used books. The Center for Research Libraries in Chicago serves as a storage center in the United States. The center also subscribes to thousands of rarely used journals and government documents, which member libraries may borrow.

Many libraries join organizations to help them face the challenges of maintaining and organizing research collections today. For instance, about 125 Canadian and U.S. libraries belong to the Association of Research Libraries. The association helps research libraries identify key problems and develop cooperative solutions to these problems. The group also works to save the information in fragile, aging books, which are an important part of today’s research collections (see the Aging books section of this article).

Government libraries

United States government libraries.

Every department and many agencies of the U.S. government maintain their own libraries to help their staffs. Three government libraries have such large and varied collections—and provide such wide-ranging services—that they are considered national libraries. These three libraries, all located in or near Washington, D.C., are (1) the Library of Congress; (2) the National Agricultural Library of the Department of Agriculture; and (3) the National Library of Medicine, part of the National Institutes of Health in the Department of Health and Human Services.

The Library of Congress is probably the largest library in the world. This enormous center of information contains more than 175 million items, including books, journals, music, films, photographs, and maps. Since 1870, the library has received two free copies of every book that is copyrighted in the United States. The U.S. Copyright Office is a department of the Library of Congress. The Library of Congress provides resources and guidance to librarians in the United States and around the world on matters of cataloging, information description standards, and classification of information. For more information on the library, see the Library of Congress article.

The National Agricultural Library was founded in 1862 to serve the Department of Agriculture. The library now has a wide range of users, including universities, government agencies, chemical and drug companies, and the agriculture industry. The library’s collection includes materials on agricultural engineering, soils, and other fields of agriculture. It also has materials on biology, chemistry, and family and consumer sciences.

The National Library of Medicine collection includes items in nearly all written languages. The collection serves physicians, nurses, students, researchers, medical schools, and libraries in many parts of the world. The National Library of Medicine relies heavily on advanced technology to provide access to medical information. The library offers electronic indexes of medical literature, medical journals in electronic form, and a wide variety of other resources.

Some large federal agencies operate library systems on a nationwide and worldwide scale. The largest of these systems are those of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Each military organization places libraries on its bases worldwide to provide technical information and leisure-reading materials. The Navy also has libraries on its ships.

The Department of Veterans Affairs operates libraries in many of its hospitals. These libraries, run by medical librarians, primarily serve the medical staff. But some also include materials for educational and recreational use by patients.

The National Archives and Records Administration is a government agency with a library that stores valuable records of the U.S. government, including the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. Most U.S. presidential libraries are part of the archives. Presidential libraries collect documents, items, and information associated with former U.S. presidents. See National Archives and Records Administration; Presidential libraries.

In addition, the U.S. Department of State is responsible for operating information resource centers in many embassies worldwide. Thousands of people visit these centers each year to find information about the United States.

There are numerous other federal libraries. Each of the executive departments of the U.S. government has an outstanding collection devoted to special fields related to the department’s work. Other important libraries include those of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the National Weather Service, the Office of Management and Budget, the Patent and Trademark Office, and the Environmental Protection Agency. The Smithsonian Institution has several libraries, which cover subjects ranging from air and space travel to the history of technology. Government libraries and agencies have websites that provide information for people who are unable to access the collections in person.

The Federal Library and Information Center Committee, established in 1965, coordinates all federal library activities. The committee has its headquarters in the Library of Congress. Its membership includes representatives from the national libraries and from the federal library community. The committee tries to make sure that the services provided in the U.S. government libraries meet the needs of the nation.

In 2000, the U.S. government introduced FirstGov, now known as USA.gov, a government information service on the internet. The website at https://www.usa.gov allows users to access a wide range of government resources from their own homes.

State libraries.

Most states have a state library. These libraries are agencies of the state governments, and their primary function is to make materials available to government officials. The libraries also provide materials to other libraries in their states. In addition, a state library plans—in cooperation with library leaders throughout the state—a statewide library program for the benefit of all citizens. The amount of service provided by state libraries varies among the states, of course. But most well-established state libraries share similar characteristics.

Service to government.

A state library serves the state government in many ways. State officials use the library as a general library and information center. The state library will provide research for state officials on any subject. This function is known as legislative reference and research service. The state library agency may maintain a special law library, which serves as the state center for legal reference and research. The law library furnishes judges, legislators, and other officials with information on government, laws, and political science.

A state library agency may maintain other special libraries in such fields as the humanities, medicine, the physical sciences, the social sciences, and technology. Special libraries of this kind are gaining increasing importance as governments take on a wider range of responsibilities. Today, government officials may need detailed information on almost any subject to help them reach decisions on complex issues.

Service to other libraries.

State libraries are sometimes called librarians’ libraries. This term reflects the state library’s role of serving other libraries in the state. For example, a state library may function as the center of a state’s interlibrary loan system. The library may supply public, school, college, and university libraries with seldom-used and costly materials from the state collection. It may also offer technical and advisory assistance to these libraries, and gather statistics on libraries in the state. State libraries work to provide quality library service for all citizens in their states. Since the 1960’s, one of the chief ways by which state libraries have promoted good statewide library service has been through library cooperation. Programs include creating library systems, organizing resource centers, and encouraging all types of libraries in the state to work together.

State libraries also serve as links between the state’s public, school, and college libraries and the state and federal governments. State libraries may propose legislation designed to benefit libraries, and they administer funds set aside by the federal government. State libraries also administer funds that state governments provide for public libraries.

Other services.

State libraries work with other agencies and organizations for library improvement. These agencies include the American Library Association, the Institute of Museum and Library Services, the United States Department of Education, and the Council of State Governments. State libraries also coordinate the recruitment of librarians in their states and work with educators in planning academic programs to train professional librarians. State libraries also conduct in-service training for librarians and library trustees to help keep them aware of new developments in technology and librarianship.

State libraries collect and preserve official state records and documents and maintain collections of material on state history. They compile and distribute lists of state publications and distribute state documents to other libraries in and outside their states. Many state libraries receive braille books and audiobooks from the Library of Congress and loan them to blind and partially sighted people in their states. In some states, the state library offers books and other library services to inmates of correctional and other institutions.

State libraries have also assumed a leadership role in the development of a national system of libraries. This role calls for the eventual coordination of the resources available in all types of libraries throughout the United States.

Canadian government libraries.

The Canadian government maintains the Library of Parliament, Library and Archives Canada, the Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information, and hundreds of other libraries that serve government departments and agencies. The main government libraries are in Ottawa, the national capital.

The Library of Parliament, like the Library of Congress, was established chiefly to serve the needs of its country’s lawmakers. But the library now serves other needs, including those of scholars.

The Library of Parliament has served the Canadian government ever since the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. The library evolved from the legislative libraries of Lower and Upper Canada, two political units that were created out of the old province of Quebec in 1791. After Lower and Upper Canada united in 1840, the two libraries became one. This library became the basis of the Library of Parliament.

Library and Archives Canada was established in 2004 by the merger of the National Library of Canada and the National Archives of Canada. The agency houses a large collection of books and other items, most of which deal with Canada. Library and Archives Canada compiles lists of books and pamphlets about Canada. Another service of the agency is AMICUS, a catalog that lists materials in numerous Canadian government, public, university, and special libraries.

The National Research Council Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information was founded in 1916 as the National Science Library. This library provides access to books and other resources and houses the government’s collections on science and technology. The institute also serves as the center of a national information network on science and technology.

Special libraries

Many businesses, associations, and other organizations maintain a library to serve the special needs of their workers and members. Such libraries fall into the general category of special libraries. Special libraries have a variety of names, including information centers, divisions of information services, research center libraries, technical libraries, and knowledge management centers.

The library of a newspaper, for example, is a special library. So is the library of a bank, of an advertising agency, of an insurance company, or of a company that makes airplanes. Many of the research and government libraries discussed elsewhere in this article are special libraries.

Special libraries range from small, one-person operations to large, complex enterprises with many employees. Some special libraries spend tens of millions of dollars each year providing library services. The contents of special libraries vary, depending on the needs of the organizations they support. For example, a pharmaceutical company’s library deals chiefly with chemistry and the life sciences. In fast-developing fields, special library collections may include few books. Instead, these libraries usually rely heavily on electronic resources, scientific papers and journals, and research or government reports.

Most special libraries focus on helping their users keep up with rapid developments in a particular field of knowledge. Many of these users are professionals who need up-to-date information to make important decisions. An engineer, for example, may need to know the results of recent research before deciding how a new product should be made.

A special librarian must be able to provide the information required by the organization. To do this job well, the librarian must (1) be thoroughly familiar with the operations and needs of the organization, (2) know the contents of the library in great detail, and (3) know how to find and use reliable sources of information outside the library.

Most special libraries have little information on general topics. Therefore, special librarians make extensive use of other sources of information, such as government agencies, research libraries, university libraries, and electronic resources.

Many special librarians have training in both librarianship and a special subject. For example, the librarian of an art museum might have degrees in art history and in library and information science. Similarly, the librarian of a chemical company might have degrees in chemistry and in library and information science.

Many special librarians belong to an association called the Special Libraries Association. This association has thousands of members in the United States, Canada, and other countries. It is divided into various divisions, such as the News Division, the Information Technology Division, and the Engineering Division. The divisions of the Special Libraries Association enable people with similar interests to work together on common library problems.

Information science and technology

Librarians draw on many fields of knowledge other than library science to help them in their work. One such field, called information science, deals with how information is created, organized, stored, retrieved, and applied. Information science also involves how people use computers and other technological advancements to locate, evaluate, and use information in various forms. Librarians often study information science to find ways to improve library resources and services.

Information science

developed gradually during the 1900’s. Today, most colleges and universities teach information science as part of their library, business, management, engineering, and computer science programs. Students who plan to become librarians usually take numerous courses in information science.

The U.S. professional society for information science, the American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIS&T), has many librarians among its members. The society operates special programs and publishes journals that provide useful information for people interested in the field. The society’s publications may include special features on such topics as digital library management or ethical issues in information science. The Bulletin of ASIS&T reports on new developments in the information field. ASIS&T also publishes the Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, which provides reviews of recent literature on information science and technology. Many other journals and publications have articles that apply information science and technology to library work. See Information science.

Technology

has altered how librarians access information. Online card catalogs, called online public access catalogs, began replacing traditional print card catalogs in the 1970’s. With print catalogs, librarians had to use the cross–references listed on a card to find information relating to the book described by that card. For example, a card for the novel The Call of the Wild, by Jack London, might also tell the researcher to look under “Dogs” and “Klondike River Valley” for information related to the novel. The researcher would then switch from the drawer of cards pertaining to The Call of the Wild to a drawer containing cards about dogs or the Klondike. Using print card catalogs was a time-consuming process. With an online card catalog, however, a researcher needs to select only one of the many links on the web page for a given item to see what related items the library has.

Online databases have also brought technological changes for librarians. Before these databases, a librarian who wanted to find newspaper or magazine articles on any given topic would need to use print indexes. These large and heavy books, sometimes numbering in the hundreds, listed all the articles published in periodicals in a given year. For example, a volume might include all the articles from The New York Times in 1969 that had to do with the Apollo 11 moon landing. The researcher would have to do a separate search for every aspect of the topic of interest. With online databases, a researcher can enter search terms and get results precisely on the topic. In addition, the search can also be expanded. For instance, an article about astronaut Neil Armstrong might also have links to articles about the educational requirements for an astronaut, or what kind of training the Apollo astronauts received.

The internet has created the largest technological shift for librarians. The internet made many aspects of library research easier to undertake and far quicker to complete. But it has also complicated librarians’ work with patrons. Previously, librarians could guarantee the quality of almost all the items in a library, but this is no longer possible with internet sites. Librarians have to evaluate the quality and legitimacy of websites on an ongoing basis. In addition, librarians need to be able to educate their patrons on how to evaluate online resources. Information is no longer limited to just what is physically in the library. Information is available from nearly everywhere in the world , and it is the librarian’s job to help patrons find the best of that information.

See Library (Careers in library work) for more information on applying information science to the library field.

Libraries of the world

Western Europe

has many of the largest, oldest, and most important libraries in the world. The national libraries of the United Kingdom and France—the British Library in London and the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris—are world centers of scholarship.

In addition to national libraries, western Europe has dozens of world-famous university libraries, including the libraries at the University of Paris and at the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge in England. There are also many important special libraries in Western Europe. Several of them have notable collections of early manuscripts and books. Vatican Library in Vatican City, the central library of the Roman Catholic Church, is one such institution. Government libraries and libraries of industrial and research organizations operate throughout western Europe.

The United Kingdom’s public library system became well established during the late 1800’s. But in most of the rest of western Europe, public library systems did not develop until the mid-1900’s. Today, there are good public library systems throughout the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Scandinavia. Many librarians consider Denmark’s public library system, which can be traced to the late 1700’s, as a model for the rest of the world. France and other western European nations have made significant progress in improving their public library systems since the mid-1900’s.

The development of library education in western Europe has followed a pattern similar to that of the development of public libraries. Excellent library schools operate in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. All except the smallest western European nations have library associations and library publications.

Eastern Europe and Russia.

The countries of eastern Europe have a long tradition of scholarly libraries. The libraries of Charles University in Prague in the Czech Republic, and of Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland, rank among the oldest in Europe. Both date from the 1300’s. Each country of Eastern Europe has a national library. Major eastern European libraries include the National Library of the Czech Republic in Prague and the Hungarian national library in Budapest.

Public libraries and reading rooms exist in large cities, small towns, and rural villages throughout eastern Europe and Russia. Labor unions also maintain library systems.

There are hundreds of thousands of libraries in Russia and the other countries that formerly made up the Soviet Union. The Russian State Library in Moscow is Russia’s largest library and one of the largest in the world. The Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and the National Library of Russia in St. Petersburg also house large collections.

Russia and the countries of eastern Europe have library associations. Journals and programs in these countries help educate librarians.

The Middle East

has a growing number of modern libraries. The region’s largest library is the National Library of Israel in Jerusalem. Other relatively large libraries in the Middle East include the national libraries of Turkey and Lebanon, and the libraries of the American University in Beirut, Lebanon; the University of Tehran in Tehran, Iran; and the University of Ankara in Ankara, Turkey. Saudi Arabia also has several university libraries. Egypt, which is part of both the Middle East and northern Africa, has large national and university libraries (for more information, see Library (Africa)).

Many Middle Eastern countries have developed public libraries. Modern and well-equipped libraries can be found in the major cities of Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia.

Various Middle Eastern universities offer library and information science programs. These universities include the University of Tehran in Iran, Hebrew University in Israel, Sultan Qaboos University in Oman, King Abdul Aziz University in Saudi Arabia, and the University of Ankara in Turkey. Library and information science associations operate in Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey.

Africa.

Millions of Africans have no public library service. In some African nations, the only important libraries are those connected with institutions of higher education. Some countries do not have any locally supported public libraries. The lack of library service is most serious in the more than 30 nations that became independent during the 1950’s and 1960’s. However, some of these countries have been developing public library services. They include Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, and Tunisia.

Most of the largest and most important African libraries are in far northern or southern Africa. Egypt’s National Library and Archives in Cairo and the Central Library of the University of Cairo are well known for their collections. In 2002, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina opened in Alexandria, Egypt. It is a revival of Alexandria’s great ancient library. Algeria has a major university library and a large national library that was rebuilt after a fire in 1962. The National Library of Tunisia also provides services for scholars and the general public.

The Republic of South Africa has several large libraries. They include the City of Johannesburg Library, the Cape Town City Libraries, and the National Library of South Africa in Cape Town. The libraries of the universities of Cape Town, Pretoria, and the Witwatersrand also house a wide range of resources.

Africa has a number of programs for educating librarians. These programs include those at the universities of Cape Town; Pretoria; Cairo; Ghana, in Accra, Ghana; Ibadan, in Ibadan, Nigeria; Dakar, in Dakar, Senegal; Makerere, in Kampala, Uganda; and Moi University in Eldoret, Kenya. Africa also has a number of library associations. These include associations in Egypt, Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, and Tunisia.

South and Southeast Asia.

Most countries of South and Southeast Asia have national libraries and one or more university libraries. Most of the libraries are small, and many are poorly supported.

The chief national libraries in South and Southeast Asia are those of India, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. The largest and best-developed university libraries are at the University of the Philippines; the University of Singapore; and the Indian universities of Allahabad, Delhi, Calcutta (Kolkata), and Mumbai. Most of the countries of South and Southeast Asia have scientific and commercial libraries, and many major government branches operate libraries.

Most of the free public libraries in South and Southeast Asia have been constructed since the 1940’s, but many countries in the region have made little progress. One of the largest libraries in South and Southeast Asia is the Delhi Public Library in India. This library was founded in 1951 with the assistance of UNESCO, a United Nations agency, to provide an example of a modern public library.

Schools in many parts of South and Southeast Asia offer library training programs. These schools include Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand; the University of the Philippines; and the universities of Delhi and Madras in India. Library associations operate in many of the countries of South and Southeast Asia.

Australia and East Asia.

Australia has a well-developed library system. The National Library of Australia is in Canberra. The country’s largest university library is that of the University of Sydney. Each state has a state library in its capital. The largest is the State Library of New South Wales in Sydney.

Australia has many governmental libraries, and other libraries that serve commercial, research, and industrial organizations. Almost every city and town in Australia has public and school libraries. Australia has a library association, the Australian Library and Information Association; a professional library journal; and several library schools.

The National Diet Library in Tokyo is the national library of Japan. There are also numerous Japanese university libraries. The most important ones include the libraries of the universities of Hokkaido, Kobe, Kyoto, Kyushu, Tohoku, Tokyo, and Waseda. Some public and school libraries also operate in Japan. In some areas of the country, bookmobiles provide library services to factories.

Many Japanese universities offer library education programs, including the School of Library and Information Science at Keio University in Tokyo. Japan has several library associations and a professional library journal.

China has a growing library system. The great National Library of China in Beijing and the Nanjing Library have extremely large collections. In addition, each province in China has at least one central library.

The numerous universities, colleges, and technical institutes throughout China have libraries. The Chinese government has made efforts to bring books and libraries to the people through schools, factories, and some public libraries.

The largest library of Taiwan is that of National Taiwan University. South Korea has the Central National Library, the Seoul National University Library, and the Korea University Library, all in Seoul. Both Taiwan and South Korea have library schools and professional associations for librarians. North Korea has a large central library in Pyongyang.

Canada.

Canada has an extensive system of public libraries. Library and Archives Canada, or Bibliothèque et Archives Canada, is the country’s national library. The professional library organization for Canada is the Canadian Federation of Library Associations (CFLA), or Fédération Canadienne des Associations de Bibliothèques (FCAB), established in 2016. It replaced an earlier organization, the Canadian Library Association, which existed from 1946 until 2016.

Latin America.

Libraries and librarianship have had a difficult time gaining recognition and support in much of Latin America. However, many countries have built national libraries and libraries for universities and other educational institutions.

The most important national libraries of Latin America operate in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and Peru. Large university library collections include those of the University of Chile; the University of Buenos Aires, in Argentina; and the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, in Mexico. Each collection is divided among several branch libraries.

Large numbers of cities and towns in Latin America have no free public library service, but several countries are making important gains toward that goal. Brazil has developed some of the best public libraries in Latin America. The São Paulo Municipal Library is especially noteworthy. Other Latin American countries that have made significant advances in providing public library service are Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Panama, and Peru.

Most Latin American countries have special schools to train librarians. These countries include Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. Almost all countries in Latin America have national library associations.

International library programs.

Several international and national organizations work to improve libraries throughout the world, especially in less developed countries. For example, UNESCO has helped upgrade libraries in many nations. UNESCO’s library activities have included the establishment of model public libraries in a number of less developed countries.

The Agency for International Development (AID) of the United States government administers the nonmilitary part of the U.S. foreign aid program. Part of the aid helps upgrade libraries and train librarians and information scientists in less developed nations. Many other countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Sweden, have agencies that perform similar functions for libraries in less developed countries.

The American Library Association (ALA) maintains an international relations program. The association helps establish libraries and library schools in several countries. The ALA also coordinates many international library programs.

The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) was founded in 1927 to promote international library cooperation. The IFLA has made much progress toward unifying library procedures and standards. The federation also promotes understanding among the librarians of the world. The headquarters of the IFLA are located in the Netherlands. The IFLA publishes the quarterly IFLA Journal.

Several international associations promote cooperation among libraries that specialize in the same field. They include associations of agriculture, law, music, and school libraries.

A number of private foundations help the international development of libraries. For example, the Asia Foundation, with headquarters in the United States, has worked to develop libraries in many Asian countries. The Ford Foundation has given financial support to develop libraries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Other foundations that provide financial support to libraries of various nations include the China Medical Board of New York and the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, headquartered in Portugal.

Careers in library work

Librarians work in an important field. They bring the knowledge of the past and the ideas that shape the future to people of all ages. Librarians also provide essential tools for the hobbies and leisure-time activities of their patrons.

Careers for librarians.

The library profession offers a wide variety of careers to fit the many kinds of libraries and library services. A librarian can work in any one of several kinds of libraries—public, school, college or university, research, government, or special. Other librarians choose to have related careers in nonlibrary settings. For example, librarians may work in the research department of a manufacturing company. Some librarians operate their own businesses, which provide information services for other companies. Librarians, especially those who work with information science, are sometimes called information professionals.

Librarians serve different kinds of people, depending on where they choose to work. Public librarians deal with children, students, professional people, and the general public. Librarians in colleges and universities help students, faculty, and scholars. Special librarians work with experts in particular fields. A librarian in a law library, for instance, might assist lawyers and legal assistants. Many librarians come into direct contact with patrons, and others work chiefly with computers and other information technology.

Librarians perform various services for patrons. Libraries—whether large or small—acquire, organize, preserve, and communicate information. In small libraries, the librarian may handle all of these operations. In larger libraries, librarians divide their work into several jobs. For example, some librarians work as acquisitions librarians, who purchase books and other materials. Others focus on new technology and are responsible for building or managing digital library systems. Librarians may also work in administration. Administrators develop library policies, manage budgets, hire staff, and handle public relations.

The work of librarians.

The work that librarians do depends on what career they choose within the profession. But most librarians pursue one of three tasks: (1) developing collections, (2) organizing materials, or (3) communicating information.

Developing collections

may involve starting a new library or improving the resources in an existing one. In either case, a librarian must determine what types of materials the collection should include, how much information is needed, and what resources can best meet the needs of users. These decisions should be made in relation to the purpose of the library, the kinds of people it serves, and the amount of money it has available. The librarian then decides what books, magazines, online resources, and other media the library needs and can afford. Librarians must choose wisely from the enormous amount of material in print, electronic, and other information forms.

Some parts of a collection become quickly outdated, and a librarian needs to replace items that are no longer accurate. For example, scientific materials may become out of date in only a few years. Other items—though old—are still important to a library’s collection. But these items may decay over time, especially when they are printed on acidic paper. Librarians must watch for decaying materials and find ways to preserve them, such as recording old books on microfilm (see Library (Aging books)).

Many libraries devote large amounts of money to the purchasing or licensing of electronic resources and services. Librarians must determine which electronic resources are most useful. They then must figure out the cheapest and most efficient ways to bring those resources to the library’s patrons.

Organizing materials,

or cataloging, provides library users with easy ways to find information. To do this, the librarian creates a description of each new item in a collection. If the item is a book, the description usually includes the author, title, and place and date of publication. The description also has a list of subjects that the item covers. In addition, a librarian must decide how to classify a book in relation to other materials in a collection. A book on economics, for example, would be classified—and arranged in the library—with other books on economics.

A librarian also assigns a call number to the new item. A call number is a combination of numbers and letters that identifies an item. Call numbers should reflect the classification of an item according to its subject matter. The record of all items in a collection make up a library’s catalog. The catalog traditionally took the form of printed cards, but card catalogs have largely been replaced by computer databases. Online public access catalogs enable library users to find items by their subject, author, title, or call number.

Communicating information

ranges from book recommendations to complex research assistance. Often, a librarian simply helps a patron find an answer to a specific question, such as “When was Martin Luther King, Jr., born?” For such requests, the librarian turns to readily available reference sources. People frequently ask librarians to find a good book for recreational reading. The person’s age, educational level, and background largely determine what the librarian will recommend.

Librarians tailor information services to their patrons’ needs. In a law library, the librarian might look up court decisions made by a particular judge. A university librarian might conduct classes on the library’s technological resources. Public librarians sometimes provide booklists, film series, and other information for particular cultural groups. For example, a librarian in an Asian American community might develop a website that provides resources on Asian history and culture.

Librarians try to communicate information to people who may not visit the library. Advertising and public relations help librarians inform people how to benefit from libraries. A librarian may also bring library materials to hospitals, community centers, and prisons. Most libraries have websites that enable people to access information from their homes.

Interests and skills.

The library profession attracts people with varying interests and backgrounds because of the wide range of work that librarians do. For example, the profession may appeal to someone who wants to work with children in an elementary school library. It also may appeal to someone who wishes to assist scientists and scholars with their work. Some people become librarians to help libraries and patrons adapt to advanced technological resources. People who have in-depth knowledge of a foreign language, computers, or a specific subject may choose librarianship to make use of these skills.

Librarians want to contribute to society and to help people satisfy their information needs. Librarians typically have a strong commitment to public service. Many librarians also enjoy keeping up with the latest knowledge and technologies.

Educational requirements.

A person must have a master’s degree from an officially recognized library and information science program to qualify for most professional positions in the United States. In schools of library and information science, students learn how to collect, organize, preserve, and communicate information. Students may specialize in a particular field, such as archives and records management, public library services, or information technology. Some schools offer internships, so that students have experience working in libraries.

The ALA officially recognizes a number of graduate library and information science programs in the United States and Canada (see the table with this article). Many other schools offer programs that the ALA does not recognize. Some meet the requirements set by various states for school librarians.

Most students must hold a bachelor’s degree for admission into graduate school. In their undergraduate work, future librarians may specialize in almost any subject. However, some schools require undergraduate courses in computers, statistics, or a foreign language. For some library positions, students must take additional courses or earn additional degrees. Art librarians, for example, generally need a background in art history.

Professional associations.

Librarians work together in a number of organizations that promote library services and set standards for the profession. Most associations offer opportunities for continuing education. They may also hold conferences or publish information about the field. The largest and oldest group is the American Library Association (ALA), which was founded in 1876. The Canadian Federation of Library Associations (CFLA) was established in 2016. See American Library Association; Canadian Library Association.

Other library associations serve the specialized interests of their members. These groups include the Special Libraries Association and the Catholic Library Association (see Special Libraries Association; Catholic Library Association). Other such associations are the American Association of Law Libraries, the American Society for Information Science and Technology, the Association for Library and Information Science Education, the Association of Jewish Libraries, the Association of Research Libraries, the Bibliographical Society of America, the Medical Library Association, and the Music Library Association.

Other careers in libraries.

Libraries often hire staff to support the library’s activities. Circulation clerks assist library users in borrowing materials, and acquisitions assistants place orders for books or other materials. Experts in administration and public relations may also work in a library. These people meet the educational requirements set by their professions, and many have taken classes in librarianship or information science.

History

The history of libraries parallels the history of writing. For about 5,500 years, people have made written records of their ideas, their relations with others, and the world around them. They have kept their records on a variety of materials—bone, clay, metal, wax, wood, papyrus, silk, leather, parchment, paper, film, plastic, and magnetic tape. At almost every stage in the development of these materials, people have assembled collections of their records into libraries.

Ancient libraries of clay.

Libraries of clay tablets were established in ancient Mesopotamia, a region that now covers part of Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. The people of Mesopotamia discovered that they could make lasting records by marking wet clay, which was then dried or baked. Thousands of these clay tablets still exist, but scholars have not yet learned the meaning of the markings on all of them.

The Sumerians, a people who lived in southern Mesopotamia, made some of the oldest clay tablets archaeologists have discovered. The Sumerians wrote on these tablets more than 5,000 years ago. A library of 30,000 clay tablets has been found at the site of the ancient city of Nippur (see Sumer). Archaeologists have found other libraries of clay tablets in excavations of ancient cities in Syria and Turkey.

In 1850, British archaeologists discovered thousands of clay tablets at the site of Nineveh. Nineveh was the capital of ancient Assyria, which occupied northern Mesopotamia. The tablets formed part of a library in the palace of King Sennacherib of Assyria, who ruled from 704 to 681 B.C.

In 1853, a larger library was found nearby. Sennacherib’s grandson, Ashurbanipal, had assembled this collection. Ashurbanipal brought together a huge collection of records from earlier kingdoms and empires. See Assyria (Language and literature).

Ancient libraries of papyrus.

During the period that the peoples of Mesopotamia wrote on clay, the Egyptians used papyrus, a writing material made from the papyrus reed. This reed grew in the marshlands of the Nile River. The Egyptians cut its stems into strips, pressed the strips into sheets, and joined the sheets to form scrolls. Some of the scrolls reached great lengths. One, called Harris Papyrus 1, is 133 feet (41 meters) long. This scroll is in the British Library in London.

Papyrus is extremely perishable. Even so, some ancient writings on papyrus have survived. The oldest ones date from about 2700 B.C. Harris Papyrus 1 dates from the 1100’s B.C.

Papyrus became the preferred writing material among peoples of the Mediterranean area about 500 B.C., and it remained so until about A.D. 300. The Egyptians used papyrus until the 900’s. See Papyrus; Manuscript (Papyrus manuscripts).

The great libraries of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome consisted of collections of papyrus scrolls. But these libraries disappeared, and most of what we know about them is based on second-hand reports. For example, scholars have found references to Egyptian libraries at Amarna in the 1300’s B.C. and at Thebes in the 1200’s B.C. However, these ancient libraries of papyrus have disappeared.

Egypt.

The most famous library of ancient times was the Alexandrian Library in Alexandria, Egypt. Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in the 330’s B.C. His successors as ruler of Egypt, Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II, developed the Alexandrian Library into the greatest collection of scrolls in the ancient world. The Ptolemies borrowed books from libraries in Athens and other cities and had them copied. According to legend, Ptolemy II shut 72 Jewish scholars in cells on the island of Pharos until they produced the Septuagint, the first known Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament.

The Alexandrian Library had a copy of every existing scroll known to the library’s administrators. The library housed about 500,000 scrolls. A succession of famous scholars headed this library, which became famous for the scholarly studies it supported as well as for its collection. In the late A.D. 200’s, the library was destroyed during a war over control of the Roman Empire. Not a trace of the original Alexandrian Library remains today.

Greece.

The Greeks also used papyrus. Some historians credit Pisistratus, a ruler of Athens during the 500’s B.C., with establishing that city’s first government-owned library. Most people of ancient times could not read, and so “public” libraries—like that of Pisistratus—served only a small minority of the population.

The philosopher Aristotle founded the most famous library of ancient Greece at his school at the Lyceum. The library served the same purpose as a university library today. The library no longer exists. According to one tradition, Aristotle’s successors sold its collection to the Alexandrian Library. Another account says Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a Roman general who looted Athens, took the collection to his palace in Rome.

Rome.

The ancient Romans continued the library-founding tradition of the Egyptians and Greeks. The earliest Roman libraries were personal collections. Greek literature, which the Romans admired, formed the main part of these collections. The possession of a personal library became a status symbol in Rome, and writers often mocked the practice.

The Roman soldier-statesman Julius Caesar made plans for a public library in Rome. The Octavian Library probably resulted from his plans. Emperor Augustus built this library on Rome’s Palatine Hill in 37 B.C., seven years after Caesar’s death. The Octavian Library may have been Rome’s first public library. The Romans built many other public libraries soon after. A survey of important Rome buildings in A.D. 337 included 28 libraries. The best of these was the Ulpian Library, built about A.D. 110 by Emperor Trajan. It had separate buildings for storing Greek and Latin books.

The Romans encouraged the establishment of libraries throughout their huge empire. Some of the buildings that resulted still stand. They include Hadrian’s Library, which was built by Emperor Hadrian at the foot of the Acropolis in Athens about A.D. 125.

The great collections of the papyrus libraries of the Roman Empire disappeared, like those of ancient Egypt and Greece. But one collection, which belonged to a Roman nobleman named Lucius Calpurnius Piso, survived. Piso lived in Herculaneum, a town at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, a volcano. In A.D. 79, Vesuvius erupted, and Herculaneum and the nearby towns of Pompeii and Stabiae were buried. In the 1750’s, excavators uncovered the library. The National Archaeological Museum in Naples has about 1,800 of the papyrus scrolls.

Ancient libraries of animal skin.

Scholars of the ancient world wrote on leather—which is made from animal skins—when papyrus was not available. During the 1940’s and early 1950’s, hundreds of manuscripts, chiefly leather scrolls, were found in caves near the shore of the Dead Sea. These Dead Sea Scrolls, as they are called, probably belonged to the library of a Jewish religious group called the Essenes. The Essenes lived in the highlands near the Dead Sea from about 150 B.C. to A.D. 68. One of the main activities of the group’s members was the copying of religious texts. The Dead Sea Scrolls include the oldest known manuscripts of the Bible. See Dead Sea Scrolls.

Parchment, made from thin layers of animal skin, enabled scribes and librarians to create books. According to legend, parchment came into wide use because of the rivalry between the library in Alexandria and the library of Pergamum, a city in what is now Turkey. When Pergamum’s library threatened to become better than Alexandria’s, the Egyptians cut off the supply of papyrus to Pergamum. So the people of Pergamum developed parchment. The word parchment comes from Pergamum.

Parchment sheets did not easily join into rolls, as did sheets of papyrus or leather. Instead, scribes and librarians began to fold several sheets of parchment down the middle and sew them into books. People soon discovered that books lasted longer than scrolls. By the A.D. 400’s, parchment had largely replaced papyrus in Europe.

Libraries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

In A.D. 378, when the Roman Empire was declining, the historian Ammianus Marcellinus complained that “The libraries are closing forever, like tombs.” His statement reflected part of a decline in all forms of education that was taking place in Europe.

In 395, the Roman Empire split into two parts—the West Roman Empire, which had its capital in Rome, and the East Roman Empire, which had its capital in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). By the late 400’s, the West Roman Empire had ended and the period known as the Middle Ages began. This period lasted through the 1400’s. During the first half of the Middle Ages—until about the late 900’s—educational and artistic activity sank to a low level in Europe. Such activity took place in relatively few places in the Western world.

Medieval collections.

Chief among the places where education continued to flourish was Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine, or East Roman, Empire. The learning and cultural activity that continued there provided a link between ancient and modern European civilizations.

During the 500’s in Constantinople, for example, a group of legal scholars used library materials and other resources to produce the Justinian Code. This collection of Roman laws ranks among the most important legal documents of all time. It became the foundation for the legal systems of many countries today. During the 900’s, the encyclopedic work known as Suidas recorded knowledge on Greek literature that would otherwise have been lost. The crusaders destroyed much of Constantinople in 1204, and its libraries disappeared completely after the Ottoman Empire took over the city in 1453.

Christian monasteries also made a major contribution to the preservation of libraries and learning during the early Middle Ages. The copying of manuscripts became a major activity of the monks who lived in monasteries throughout Europe and in parts of Asia and Africa. The monks worked in a room called a scriptorium. Most of the manuscripts they copied were from religious works, especially the Bible. But they also copied other works, including writings from ancient Greece and Rome. The monks sold some of the copies they made and kept others in the monastery libraries.

A scholar found one of the oldest copies of the Bible in 1844 in Saint Catherine’s monastery, on the Sinai Peninsula at the western tip of Asia. This manuscript, called Codex Sinaiticus, dates from the early 300’s and is now in the British Library. Other important texts were found in the libraries of Greek monasteries on Mount Athos and of Coptic monasteries in Egypt. In Bethlehem, from 386 to 420, Saint Jerome produced a large body of sacred writings. His works included the Vulgate, a famous Latin translation of the Bible.

About 540, Cassiodorus, a Roman nobleman, established a monastery on his estate in southern Italy. The monks there made both religious and nonreligious books. Cassiodorus has been called the “father of literary monasticism in the West.” Many other monasteries also gained importance for their scriptoriums and libraries. Ireland contributed much to the movement. Irish monks produced many books, and the monks also founded monasteries in other parts of Europe.

The modern university began to develop in Europe during the 1100’s. Instruction and discussion, rather than research, were the main features of the earliest universities. But research gained importance through the years, and the universities gradually developed great library resources.

Renaissance collections.

The growth of the universities reflected Europe’s emergence from the Middle Ages and entry into the Renaissance, a revival of art and learning that began in Italy about 1300. Europeans acquired a great desire for artistic and literary works and looked back to ancient Greece and Rome for inspiration. Scholars found and translated ancient writings, and writers created literatures of their own.

The renewed interest in learning led many aristocrats to develop private libraries. Cosimo de’ Medici began one such private collection in Florence, Italy, during the 1400’s. It formed the basis of the Laurentian Library, which ranks among the world’s finest libraries today. The famous artist Michelangelo designed its building. In England, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, accumulated a large and valuable collection of writings. He gave the collection to the University of Oxford in the early 1400’s, and the university’s library still has some of the writings. The Vatican Library also dates from the 1400’s. This library of the Roman Catholic Church houses some of the world’s most valuable literary treasures.

Paper, printing, and libraries.

Paper is better suited for the manufacture of books than is any other material. The Chinese invented paper by A.D. 1, though they did not use it for writing until about A.D. 110. The art of papermaking reached Baghdad (now in Iraq) by 800, Egypt by 900, and Europe by 1100. The use of paper grew rapidly in Europe, and paper had almost completely replaced parchment by 1500.

During the Renaissance in Europe, the spread of education and the increasing desire for knowledge created a demand for books. Scribes, however, could not meet this demand by hand copying. The problem was solved by the invention of printing from movable type. People in East Asia had known of movable type for centuries, but the invention had not reached Europe. Europeans developed movable type independently in the mid-1400’s. At that time, Johannes Gutenberg of Germany began using movable type to print books. His technique spread rapidly. See Gutenberg, Johannes.

Printing on paper revolutionized bookmaking. More books could be printed, and more people could afford to buy them. The printed book also brought many changes in libraries. Books gradually replaced handwritten manuscripts. The books were put on open shelves, not in chests, as the manuscripts had been. By 1600, libraries had started to look like present-day libraries. Shelves of books lined the walls, and tables for readers stood in the middle of the room.

Libraries of the 1600’s and 1700’s.

A golden age for libraries took place in the 1600’s and 1700’s. Many great libraries that still exist opened in Europe, a number of them in universities. The first state-supported libraries were also founded.

Britain.

Duke Humphrey’s library at Oxford was almost completely destroyed in the mid-1500’s, when the government sought to wipe out all traces of Roman Catholicism. Sir Thomas Bodley, an English statesman, began to rebuild the library in the late 1500’s. It was renamed the Bodleian Library. This library grew through the years, and today it ranks as the United Kingdom’s second largest (see Bodleian Library). In 1759, the United Kingdom opened the British Museum, which included a museum and a national library. The library, which became the British Library in 1973, is the nation’s largest and contains many priceless treasures. See British Library.

The public library tradition in Britain (now the United Kingdom) has been strong since the late 1800’s. But traces of it date back hundreds of years. The first known public library in the United Kingdom began in the Guildhall in London in 1425. The second began in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1580. These libraries no longer exist. The first continuing library open to the public was Chetham’s Library, founded in Manchester, England, in 1653. Parliament passed the Public Libraries Act in 1850, and public libraries gradually spread throughout the United Kingdom.

France.

The national library of France, the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris, began in 1367 as the Royal Library of King Charles V. During the French Revolution (1789-1799), the Royal Library became the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. The Bibliothèque ranks among the largest and most important libraries in the world. See Bibliothèque Nationale de France.

In 1643, Cardinal Jules Mazarin founded the great Mazarine Library in Paris. He collected books and manuscripts from all parts of Europe and opened the library to the public. The library is famous for its influence on the methods of operating libraries. Cardinal Mazarin’s librarian, Gabriel Naude, wrote one of the first explanations of library management. Librarians consider much of what Naude wrote as valid today. The French government now owns the Mazarine Library.

Italy.

The great libraries of Italy include the Laurentian Library in Florence, the Vatican Library in Vatican City, the Ambrosian Library in Milan, and the National Central Library in Florence. The Laurentian and Vatican libraries are described in the Medieval collections section of this article. The Ambrosian Library, founded in 1609, is noted for its collections of manuscripts by Asians, monks, and scientists. The National Central Library is based on the collection of Antonio Magliabechi, a scholar of the 1600’s and 1700’s.

Germany.

In Germany, three libraries perform the functions of a national library—the State Library of Berlin, the German National Library in Leipzig, and the German National Library in Frankfurt. The State Library of Berlin was founded in 1661 by Frederick William, ruler of the state of Brandenburg. The name of the library has changed several times through the years. Its names have included the Royal Library, the Prussian State Library, and the German State Library. The German National Library in Leipzig was founded in 1912. It merged with the German National Library in Frankfurt in 1990.

Russia.

The National Library of Russia in St. Petersburg , one of Russia’s chief libraries, was founded in the late 1700’s by Empress Catherine the Great. The largest Russian library, the Russian State Library in Moscow, dates from 1862.

Other European libraries.

The Royal Library of Denmark in Copenhagen was established in 1657. King Philip V founded the National Library of Spain in Madrid in 1712. In Portugal, the National Library in Lisbon dates from 1796. National libraries, as well as great university libraries, were founded in many other European countries during the 1600’s and the 1700’s.

Libraries in the East.

The Chinese developed a deep respect for scholars and scholarship in ancient times. Ancient Chinese libraries were established for use by scholars, royalty, and aristocrats. The libraries helped advance and preserve Chinese learning. This learning became a major influence in China and in other Asian countries. The East did not experience a decline in learning during the Middle Ages, as did the West. But libraries and other educational tools were used only by scholars and the upper class until the 1900’s.

Libraries in Latin America.

Spanish conquistadors (conquerors), priests, and colonists brought the first large collections of books to Latin America during the 1500’s and 1600’s. Latin America’s oldest libraries are university libraries. The Autonomous University of Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic was founded in 1538. It is the oldest university in the Western Hemisphere. The National Autonomous University of Mexico in Mexico City and the Major National University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru, were established in 1551. The libraries of these universities probably date from the time the schools were founded.

Latin America established its largest national libraries in the 1800’s. Argentina’s national library in Buenos Aires and Brazil’s national library in Rio de Janeiro opened in 1810. The national library of Chile was founded in Santiago in 1813. Mexico’s national library dates from 1867.

Libraries in Canada.

Canada’s first college library was established in 1635 at the Jesuit College of Quebec. The Canadian Library Association was founded in 1946. In 1953, Canada established a national library in Ottawa. See Canada (Education) and the section on Libraries in each province article.

Libraries in the United States.

The oldest library in the United States dates from 1638, when Massachusetts clergyman John Harvard donated money and about 400 books to a new university. The gift was so important that administrators promptly named the university for Harvard, and the library became the Harvard University Library.

Colonial libraries.

Most early colonial libraries belonged to ministers and consisted of useful books on religion, medicine, and animals. Thomas Bray, an English clergyman, established the first free lending libraries in the American Colonies during the late 1600’s. However, interest in these libraries disappeared after Bray’s death in 1730.

In the 1700’s, the colonists attempted to make books available to many people with the establishment of subscription libraries. People paid dues to become members of subscription libraries, and dues were used to buy books. The members could then borrow the books free of charge.

In 1731, Benjamin Franklin and his friends founded the first subscription library in America, the Library Company of Philadelphia. The company’s original collection still exists (see the Libraries and museums section of the Philadelphia article). The success of the company caused many other subscription libraries to open. Circulating libraries, in which owners operated the libraries for a profit, also came into use. Several colonial leaders developed personal libraries. Notable collections included those of William Brewster, William Byrd, Cotton and Increase Mather, and John Winthrop.

Libraries in the new nation.

Like their colonial predecessors, many leaders of the new United States had vast personal libraries. One of the most extensive was that of Thomas Jefferson. In 1815, Congress bought Jefferson’s collection for the Library of Congress, which had burned during the War of 1812. The library was rebuilt around Jefferson’s books.

Several changes in U.S. life during the 1800’s increased the popularity of libraries. Immigrants flocked to the United States. Many people moved to cities to find work in factories, and others settled in the West. All of these people turned to libraries for education and entertainment, and circulating and subscription libraries flourished. Other kinds of libraries developed, such as church libraries and women’s club libraries.

The U.S. ideal of a free public education for every child led naturally to a movement for free public libraries. One of the nation’s first free tax-supported libraries was established in Peterborough, New Hampshire, in 1833. The idea spread rapidly.

In 1846, the Smithsonian Institution—a center devoted to research and learning—was founded in Washington, D.C. Some of its early projects reflected the keen interest in libraries sweeping the country. For example, the Smithsonian took a census of the nation’s libraries. It attempted to develop a national union catalog and a procedure for printing catalogs. The institution organized the first convention of librarians in 1853. Charles Coffin Jewett, the Smithsonian’s first librarian, directed all of these activities.

Melvil Dewey became one of the major figures in the history of American libraries. Dewey had a part in three major library events that took place in 1876. He helped found the American Library Association that year. He also helped start the Library Journal, a magazine of library news and trends and of book reviews. In addition, Dewey published the Dewey Decimal Classification in 1876. Dewey also established the nation’s first library school, at Columbia University in 1887. Other librarians who made important contributions to library development include Caroline M. Hewins, a pioneer in children’s library work, and Katharine L. Sharp, founder of the first Midwestern library school in 1893.

In 1881, Andrew Carnegie gave the first of a series of gifts that made his name almost synonymous with public libraries. Carnegie had earned a huge fortune in the steel industry. He helped build more than 2,500 public libraries in the English-speaking world between 1881 and his death in 1919. About 1,700 of these libraries were built in the United States. See Carnegie, Andrew.

The development of modern library systems.

Since 1900, the United States has made great progress in the development of libraries and library services. The number of public, school, and special libraries has multiplied greatly.

Today, the federal government helps support libraries. The government makes grants to the states for library services, improvements, and construction. It also provides services for people with disabilities and assistance to medical libraries and to libraries in higher education. New resources, services, and technologies have enabled modern libraries to better serve their communities. There are two areas in particular where librarianship in the United States has greatly developed: the emphasis on patrons’ needs and the growing professionalism of librarianship.

In the past, the major focus of librarians was preserving knowledge. If the information was safe and well organized, its usefulness to library patrons was a secondary concern. Today, most libraries in the United States are more focused on the needs of patrons. Librarians strive to make information clearly organized so that patrons can easily access it on their own. Modern libraries also work hard to discover what resources patrons want and then to provide those resources, offering everything from books to movies and music.

There has been a growing professionalism for librarians as well. The requirements for a library degree in the United States are becoming more sophisticated. Students in library school take classes on such subjects as database design, computer networks, and the psychology of learning. Librarians are graduating from library school with broader, yet more rigorous, training than was often true in the past. All of this education has become necessary to meet the complex and changing needs of patrons.