Name is a word or series of words by which a person, animal, place, or thing is known. Every person has a name. In Western nations, most people have three names—two given names and a family name. The two given names are the first name and the middle name. The family name—also called the surname or last name—is the name traditionally shared by all the members of a family. All three names together make up the legal name—that is, the complete name by which a person is officially known. A title, such as Mr., or a suffix, such as Jr., is not part of one’s legal name.
This article discusses the origins and cultural characteristics of personal names. For information about proper etiquette in the use of names, see Address, Forms of.
Given names
Many given names have long histories and original meanings, though people today may not be aware of them. In Western nations, many parents choose names for their children without considering the original meanings. In African and Asian countries, however, children’s names usually have meanings that are widely understood by the community. For instance, in Nigeria, the name Daren, which means night, is often given to children born at night.
Many given names that are popular in Western nations come from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, or Celtic languages. Others have roots in the languages of Africa, Asia, or elsewhere. A given name is sometimes called a Christian name.
Hebrew names
taken from the Bible have been an important source of given names in the United States and throughout Europe. Some of the most common names derived from Hebrew are John (gracious gift of God), Mary (wished for), and Michael (who is like God?). Others include Anna, Anne, and Hannah (gracious); Elizabeth (oath of God); Jacob and James (may God protect, or one who takes the place of another); Joshua (God is salvation); Matthew (gift of God); Sarah (princess); and Zachary (God has remembered).
Greek and Latin names.
Common given names derived from Greek include Alexander (defender of humanity), Anthony (flourishing), Christopher (Christ bearer), Doris (mother of sea gods), Nicholas and Nicole (victory of the people), and Sophia (wisdom). Names derived from Latin include Diana (moon goddess), Emily (industrious), Justin (just or fair), Olivia (olive tree), Patrick (noble), and Victor and Victoria (victory).
Teutonic names
have origins in the Teutonic, or Germanic, languages. Teutonic languages include Dutch, English, German, and the Scandinavian languages. Teutonic names usually consist of two elements joined together without regard to their relationship. For example, William is composed of two name elements: Wille (will, or resolution) and helm (helmet). But the name’s meaning is not helmet of will or resolute helmet. Instead, it means will, helmet. Other names with Teutonic roots include Audrey (noble, strength); Emma (greatness); Richard (power, brave); and Roger (famous warrior).
Celtic names
are derived from the Breton, Irish, Welsh, and Scottish Gaelic languages. Popular Celtic names include Brian and Brianna (noble, strong), Connor (wise or lover of hounds), Dylan (of the sea), Erin (Ireland), and Kevin (handsome or gentle). Celtic versions of Hebrew, Greek, or Latin names also appear in countries with a Celtic tradition. For instance, Sean and Ian are the Irish and Scottish forms of John.
Black names.
Black parents in the United States and other countries often give their children names with European origins. However, since the 1960’s, many black parents have chosen names that reflect their African heritage, their religious beliefs, or other cultural identities.
Some common black names are derived from such African languages as Igbo, Kikuyu (also called Kikikuyu), Swahili (also called Kiswahili), or Yoruba. Examples include Aba (born on Thursday), Aduke (much loved), Marjani (coral), and Dakarai (happiness). Other names may have roots in the religion of Islam. For instance, the boxer Cassius Marcellus Clay changed his name to Muhammad Ali when he adopted the Black Muslim religion. Various other Muslim names, such as Malik and Khadijah, have gained popularity among blacks.
Many black parents today create new names that are based on sound patterns that are common in black communities. Examples of such names include Deshone, Jalen, Montell, and Trayvon for boys, and Aunjuane, Denisha, Lakeisha, and Trinique for girls.
Hispanic names.
Traditionally, the most common given names in Spanish-speaking cultures have been Spanish versions of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Teutonic names. Jose, Juan, Carlos, Maria, Isabel, Luisa, and Sofia, for example, are Spanish versions of Joseph, John, Charles, Mary, Elizabeth, Louise, and Sophie, respectively. Many popular Hispanic names have roots in religion. For instance, the names Araceli (altar of heaven), Mercedes (mercies), and Pilar (pillar) are based on titles given to the Virgin Mary in Roman Catholic tradition. Various other names have been taken from Hispanic novels or adopted from the Native American cultures of Mexico and Central America.
Asian names.
In China, Japan, and other East Asian countries, most parents choose names from words that have a clear meaning in their native language. For instance, a Korean family might name a daughter Joo-eun, meaning silver pearl.
Parents from India, Pakistan, and other South Asian countries often take names from Hindu or Islamic tradition. Examples of Hindu names include Kiran (ray of light) and Rohan (ascending) for boys, and Priya (beloved) and Jaya (victory) for girls. Examples of Muslim names include Abdullah (servant of God) and Farid (unique) for boys, and A’isha (life or woman) and Latifah (kind, gentle) for girls.
Asian parents living in the United States and Canada commonly give their children Western names, or names that can be easily pronounced by English speakers.
Native American names
reflect the culture of a particular tribe. Names are often symbolic, though each group has its own naming traditions. For instance, in many groups, a child traditionally had one name at birth and moved on to other names in later stages of life. In other groups, a person’s name was related to the clan (group of relatives with a common ancestor) within the tribe to which the person belonged.
Today, many Native Americans have “Americanized” names for legal identification purposes, in addition to Native American names that they use within their own families and communities. For instance, the actor Rodney Grant, a member of the Omaha nation, also bears the name Mon-ga-ska (white breast of a deer), a traditional name for men of the Deer clan.
Other given names.
In many countries, including the United Kingdom and the United States, family names are often used as given names. For instance, the given names Ashley, Logan, Mackenzie, Madison, Ryan, Scott, and Taylor originated as family names. Other sources of given names include gems (amber, jade) and place names (Brittany, Savannah). Many people have as their middle name the maiden name of the mother—that is, the family name that the mother had before marriage.
Family names
Family names have developed in a variety of ways. Common sources of family names include locations, surroundings, occupations, and family background.
The classification of family names is difficult, largely due to changes and inconsistencies in spelling and pronunciation over the years. For many years, the spelling of a name could vary from one writer to another. In some cases, the same name would be spelled in different ways within the same document. Names that immigrants bring into a country are sometimes altered into more familiar-sounding names. For instance, in the United States, the Dutch Roggenfelder (dweller in or near a rye field) became the American Rockefeller.
Locations.
Many family names have origins in a person’s surroundings or place of residence. For example, if a man lived on or near a hill or mountain, he might have as his family name Maki, if from Finland; Dumont or Depew in France; Zola in Italy; Jurek in Poland; or Hill in England. Many other family names—including such English names as Wood, Lake, Brook, Stone, or Ford—are based on natural surroundings. Some family names come from the names of towns, such as Middleton or Kronenberg. Many English place names have the endings -ham, -thorp, -ton, -wic, and -worth, which mean a homestead or dwelling.
Occupations.
Family names have also come from people’s jobs. Such names as Baker, Carpenter, Clarke (the British pronunciation of clerk), Cook, Miller, and Taylor are quite common. The most common surname in the English language is Smith (metalworker). The name Smith takes the form of Schmidt in Germany, Lefevre in France, Ferraro in Italy, and Kuznetzvo in Russia.
Ancestors.
Many family names come from the given names of ancestors. Nearly every language has a suffix or prefix that means son of. Some names that include the term son of include Irish names beginning with Mc or Mac, German names ending in -sohn or -son, and Scandinavian names ending in -sen or -son. Russian and Serbian names ending in -ovitch and Romanian names ending in -escu have the same meaning. Family names describing the bearer of the name as the son of John include Johnson and Jackson in England; Johns and Jones in Wales; Jensen, Jansen, and Hansen in Denmark; Jonsson and Johanson in Sweden; Janowicz in Poland; Ivanov in Russia and Bulgaria; Janosfi in Hungary; and MacEoin in Ireland. Irish names beginning with O’ originally signified a grandson.
Many family names have roots in words that were used to describe an ancestor. In the Middle Ages, which lasted from about the 400’s through the 1400’s, most Europeans lived in small villages, and needed only a single name. But when a village clerk needed to record that a villager named Robert had paid a tax, he often had to add descriptive words to distinguish the villager from others with the same name. For example, the clerk might call the man Robert, the small, which would eventually lead to the family name Small. The names Gross and Groth come from the German word for a fat or large person. Names like Reid, Reed, and Read are early spellings of the word red and were originally used to refer to a person with red hair.
Other family names.
Many Jewish family names come from combinations of such words as gold, silver, rosen (rose), berg (mountain), stein (stone), and thal (valley). Examples of such names include Goldberg, Silverstein, and Rosenthal. Other Jewish names come from the names of cities, such as London and Modena. Still others have religious meanings. The name Katz, for instance, is an abbreviation of kohen tzedek, Hebrew for priest of righteousness.
In Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries, a child traditionally takes the surname of both the father and the mother. These names were formerly joined by y, the Spanish word for and. For example, Julio, the son of Rodrigo Ruiz y Gonzalez and Maria Lopez y Chavez, would be known as Julio Ruiz y Lopez. Among Spanish-speaking people today, a hyphen may join the two names, as in Julio Ruiz-Lopez. The name may also be shortened to Julio Ruiz.
Many family names have more than one origin. For example, the family name Lee may indicate that an ancestor lived near a meadow or forest clearing, or in an English town named Lee or Leigh. However, the same name could also be a modernized spelling of the Irish name Laoidhigh, meaning poet, or the Norwegian word Li, meaning mountain slope. For families of Chinese descent, the name could come from the word Li, meaning plum.
Other names
Nicknames
are informal names that are used in addition to, or instead of, legal names. Nicknames are often based on a person’s prominent characteristics. Happy and Gabby, for instance, might describe someone’s personality. Other nicknames, such as Tiny or Slim, might be based on physical characteristics.
Sometimes a nickname results from a child’s attempt to pronounce a word or name, such as Lilibet for Elizabeth. In other instances, a nickname is a translation of the person’s real name. Many people called New York City mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia The Little Flower, a literal translation of his Italian first name. In other cases, a nickname consists of a person’s initials. For instance, U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was widely known as FDR.
Pet names, or nursery names, often consist of abbreviations of given names, such as Bob for Robert, or Liz for Elizabeth. They may also represent family names, such as Smitty for Smith.
Pseudonyms
are fictitious names used by people who wish to conceal their identities or who want to be known by another name. Some celebrities use pseudonyms to avoid being recognized. An alias usually refers to a false name taken by a criminal to disguise his or her identity.
Stage names are names that some entertainers assume in their professions. For instance, the American actor Thomas Cruise Mapother IV gained fame as Tom Cruise. Similarly, Frances Gumm, an American singer and actress, was better known as Judy Garland.
A pen name, or nom de plume, is a writer’s pseudonym. Many authors have assumed pen names. For example, Voltaire was the pen name of Francois Marie Arouet. Eric Blair, and English writer, wrote under the name of George Orwell. See Pen name; Pseudonym.
The history of names
The Chinese were the first known people to use more than one name. The Emperor Fuxi is said to have decreed the use of family names about 2852 B.C. The Chinese customarily had three names: a family name, placed first; a generation name; and a milk name, corresponding to a given name.
In early times, Roman citizens used only one name, or sometimes two. But as the republic grew, they developed a system of three names. The praenomen stood first as the person’s given name. Next came the nomen, which indicated the person’s gens, or clan. The last name, the cognomen, designated the family. A person sometimes added a fourth name, the agnomen, to commemorate a remarkable action or event. After the fall of the Roman Empire, however, single names once again became customary.
Family names came into use again in northern Italy about the late A.D. 900’s, and became common about the 1200’s. Nobles first adopted family names to set them apart from the common people. The nobles made these family names hereditary, and they descended from father to child. A family name became the mark of a well-bred person, so the common people began to adopt the practice as well. After the Crusaders passed through Italy on their return from the Holy Land, they carried the Italian custom of family names to other European countries.
Middle names appeared in parts of Europe during the Middle Ages. However, they did not become common in North America until the late 1700’s.
