Pakistan << PAK ih `stan` or `pah` kih STAHN >> is a Muslim country in southern Asia officially called the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Its capital is Islamabad, and its largest city is Karachi.
Almost all the people of Pakistan practice Islam, the Muslim religion. Despite their common religion, Pakistanis have strong ties to different cultures. The major cultural groups include Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns (or Pakhtuns), and Balochi. Each group speaks a different language and inhabits a different part of the country. Urdu is the official language of Pakistan, but less than 10 percent of the people speak it as their primary language. Pakistan has struggled to bring the different cultures together into a unified nation.
Pakistan’s natural features are as diverse as its cultural groups—towering mountain ranges, high plateaus, lush green plains, and arid deserts. Most of the people live in the irrigated plains of eastern Pakistan. The most densely populated part is the Punjab, a rich agricultural region in the northeast. The western part of the country is sparsely populated because of its dry climate and its barren, rugged, mountainous terrain.
The majority of Pakistan’s people live in rural areas, though Pakistan’s cities are growing rapidly. Most of Pakistan’s rural inhabitants work in agriculture and follow traditional clan and tribal customs. By contrast, people in the urban areas engage in a range of professions, and many have adopted modern ideas and values. Although Pakistan has made rapid strides in industrialization, its economy still relies heavily on agriculture.
Pakistan’s history dates back thousands of years. About 2600 B.C., a sophisticated civilization emerged in the Indus Valley, centered around the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Later, over the course of several thousand years, a variety of peoples—Afghans, Arabs, Greeks, Persians, and Turks—came to the region.
In the 1800’s, the area that makes up Pakistan and India came under British colonial rule. In 1947, Pakistan was created as a homeland for Muslims, while the people of India were primarily Hindus. The people of Kashmir were Muslims, but the region was ruled by a Hindu prince who tried to join his lands to India. Pakistan and India have struggled over control of the region ever since.
Pakistan initially consisted of two parts called East Pakistan and West Pakistan. More than 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) of Indian territory separated the two sections, but the people in both sections were Muslims. West Pakistan tended to dominate East Pakistan, which had a majority of the population. In 1971, East Pakistan won a nine-month civil war and became the independent nation of Bangladesh (see Bangladesh).
Government
National government.
Under the Constitution, the president is head of state. An electoral college, consisting of the members of Parliament and the members of the four provincial assemblies, elects the president to a five-year term.
The Cabinet and the prime minister head the government. The prime minister is typically the leader of the party with the most seats in the National Assembly. The president can only dissolve Parliament with the assent of the prime minister. Parliament consists of the National Assembly and the Senate. The people directly elect the 342 members of the Assembly to five-year terms. Ten Assembly seats are reserved for non-Muslims, and 60 seats are reserved for women. In the Senate, which has 100 members, the four provinces of Pakistan have equal representation. Provincial assemblies choose 92 members of the Senate. Another eight members are elected from areas of Pakistan administered directly by the federal government. Members of the Senate serve six-year terms.
Provincial and local government.
Pakistan has four provinces—Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly North-West Frontier Province), the Punjab, and Sindh. Each province has a governor and an elected assembly. Elected and appointed officials govern cities, towns, and villages.
The federal government rules Pakistan’s capital, Islamabad, as a separate district called the Capital Territory of Islamabad. Pakistan controls part of the Kashmir region, which lies partly in Pakistan, partly in China, and partly in India. The areas controlled by Pakistan are called Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. See Kashmir.
Politics.
The Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz (PML-N) and the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) have traditionally been the dominant political parties in Pakistan. During the 2010’s, however, the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf Party (PTI) emerged as a major opposition party to the PML-N and PPP. Other parties in Pakistan include religious parties, such as the Muslim parties Jamā`at-i-Islāmī and Jamī`at-i-Ulamā Islam. Pakistanis 18 years old or older may vote.
Courts.
The Supreme Court is Pakistan’s highest court. Its decisions are binding on all Pakistani courts, including the Federal Shariat Court, which oversees Islamic aspects of law. Each province has a High Court and other courts with civil and criminal jurisdiction.
Armed forces.
An army, a navy, and an air force are the main branches of the armed forces. Military service is voluntary.
People
Ancestry.
Pakistan’s people are descended from many different cultures. The earliest inhabitants in the region belonged to the same ethnic group as the people in northern India. Over the centuries, Afghans, Arabs, Greeks, Persians, and Turks came with invading armies. Many of the invaders settled in the area and intermarried with the inhabitants. These multiple influences added layers of variety to Pakistani culture.
Cultural groups and languages.
Despite the bond of Islam, cultural differences divide the people of Pakistan. Each group has its own language and customs. Some Pakistanis feel greater loyalty to their own cultural group than to the nation.
Language is an important factor that distinguishes cultural groups. Major regional languages include Balochi, Punjabi, Pashto (also called Pakhto), and Sindhi. Urdu is Pakistan’s official language, but less than 10 percent of the people speak it as their primary language.
The Punjabis, the largest cultural group, speak different dialects of the Punjabi language. They live mainly in the Punjab but have a presence in other parts of the country, especially Karachi. Members of this group control the government, economy, and armed forces.
Urdu-speaking Muhajirs immigrated to Pakistan from India when the two countries separated in 1947. The Muhajirs became prominent in government after independence, but they have since lost power. Their descendants, most of whom live in Karachi or Hyderabad, blame Punjabi dominance for their declining influence.
Other leading groups include the Sindhis, the Pashtuns (also called Pakhtuns), and the Balochi. The Sindhis have a slight majority in Sindh but are outnumbered by Muhajirs and other non-Sindhi groups in major cities, such as Karachi. Muhajirs and Sindhis have clashed over educational and employment opportunities and political control of Karachi. The Pashtuns, who belong to various tribes and speak Pashto (or Pakhto), inhabit Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the northern part of Balochistan. The Balochi consist of several nomadic and tribal groups. They speak dialects of Balochi and live in Balochistan, the largest but least populated province of Pakistan. Balochistan is also home to smaller cultural groups, such as the Brahuis, Makranis, and Lassis.
People from Afghanistan form another cultural group in Pakistan. Since the 1970’s, millions of Afghans have fled to Pakistan to escape warfare in their home country. However, many of those who fled later returned to Afghanistan.
Way of life
Rural life.
About three-fifths of Pakistanis live in rural areas. Most of them are farmers, herders, and skilled workers, such as carpenters and bricklayers. Local customs and beliefs play an important part in rural life.
Housing and clothing vary from one region to another, depending on climate, local customs, and economic conditions. Most rural villages consist of clusters of two- or three-room houses made of clay or sun-dried mud. Most of these homes have little furniture. People sit and eat on earthen floors covered by straw or woven mats. Many homes lack basic plumbing and electric power.
City life.
A majority of urban dwellers cannot read or write, or can read and write only a little. Most earn a living as unskilled laborers, factory workers, shopkeepers, or craftworkers. Many live in modest houses in old, crowded neighborhoods or in makeshift homes on empty plots of land. The inner cities are heavily polluted, and sanitation is poor.
The middle and upper classes, who make up a small percentage of the population, reside in spacious homes in comfortable urban neighborhoods. Many of these people have been educated in English and know a great deal about Western styles and ideas. They stand in stark contrast to the majority of Pakistanis, who are rooted in their traditional cultures.
Clothing.
Pakistanis wear different clothing depending on their region. The most common garment worn by both men and women is the shalwar-qamiz (or salwar-kameez), which consists of loose trousers and a long, knee-length shirt. Women also wear a dupatta (scarf) or a shawl called a chador or chadar over the shoulders and head. Outside the home, some women cover themselves with a tentlike garment called a burqa or burka. In parts of the Punjab, some men wear skirtlike garments called dhotis or lungis. Many Punjabi women prefer the loose, skirtlike ghagra instead of the shalwar-qamiz. Turbans and woolen or fur caps are popular head coverings among Pakistani men.
Food and drink.
Wheat and other grains are the staple diet of most Pakistanis. They eat flat loaves of bread called chapattis or nans with cooked lentils, vegetables, and mutton, beef, or chicken curries. Biryani and pilau are rice dishes mixed with meat, vegetables, raisins, and nuts. Pakistanis like their food flavored with spicy seasonings. They do not eat pork, which is forbidden by Islam. Desserts, such as kheer (a kind of rice pudding) and halwa or halva (a confection made with ground seeds or dried fruits or vegetables) are popular. Fresh and dried fruits are also eaten as desserts. Tea with milk and sugar is a favorite drink throughout Pakistan. In hot weather, Pakistanis enjoy a yogurt beverage called lassi, flavored with sugar or salt.
Recreation.
Sightseeing, picnics, eating out, fairs, motion pictures, and theater are popular recreational activities in Pakistan. In rural areas, wrestling, horse racing, and tent pegging (a horse-riding game) are favorite sports. Satellite television and movies on DVD have become popular, especially in urban areas. Interest has grown in organized sports, such as cricket, field hockey, football, tennis, squash, and volleyball.
Religion.
More than 96 percent of Pakistan’s people practice Islam. The majority of Pakistan’s Muslims belong to the Sunni division of Islam. Less than 20 percent belong to the Shī`ah division. The end of Ramadan, the month of fasting, and the hajj, the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, are important religious holidays. People of other religions in Pakistan include Christians, Hindus, Buddhists, and Parsis. See Islam. 
Education.
More than two-thirds of the men and more than a third of the women above the age of 15 can read and write. School attendance is not compulsory, and less than half of the children of school age attend school. Pakistan suffers from a shortage of schools, qualified teachers, and instructional materials. However, wealthy Pakistanis have access to high-quality private schools.
Islamic religious schools called madrasahs have become popular in both rural and urban areas. These schools teach the Qur’ān and other tenets of Islam. Some of the schools foster religious extremism, although the government has tried to stop this. 
Pakistan has over 20 universities and several private colleges. Some of the largest educational institutions are the universities of Karachi, Peshawar, and the Punjab.
The arts.
Each region of Pakistan has its own folk literature, consisting of stories and songs about legendary or historical personalities. Folk theater based on myths and legends is immensely popular in the rural areas. In the cities, motion pictures—either in theaters or on video—are in great demand. Art and architecture in Pakistan shows the influence of both Islamic and local cultural traditions. Pakistanis have a passion for folk, classical, and popular music, and several Pakistani musicians have acquired an international following (see Islamic art).
Land and climate
Pakistan has five main land regions: (1) the Northern and Western Highlands, (2) the Punjab Plain, (3) the Sindh Plain, (4) the Balochistan Plateau, and (5) the Thar Desert.
Mountains cover much of northern and western Pakistan, known as the Northern and Western Highlands. K2, the second highest peak in the world, towers 28,250 feet (8,611 meters) above sea level in the part of Kashmir controlled by Pakistan. Only Mount Everest is higher. Mountain passes cut through the rugged peaks at several points. The most famous of these passes, the Khyber Pass, links Pakistan and Afghanistan. The mountain regions have the coolest weather. Summer temperatures in the north and northwest average about 75 °F (24 °C), and winter temperatures often fall below freezing. 
The Punjab Plain and the Sindh Plain occupy most of the eastern part of the country. These regions are alluvial plains (land formed of soil deposited by rivers). In the north, the Punjab is watered by the Indus River and four of its tributaries—the Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers. The combined waters of these four tributaries join the Indus River in east-central Pakistan. South of this meeting point, the broadened Indus flows to the Arabian Sea through the Sindh Plain.
In the Punjab, temperatures average over 90 °F (32 °C) in summer and about 55 °F (13 °C) in winter. The eastern part of the Punjab receives the most rain—more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) a year. Extensive irrigation systems have made the Punjab and Sindh plains fertile agricultural regions.
The Balochistan Plateau lies in southwestern Pakistan. Most of the plateau is dry and rocky and has little plant life. Much of the Balochistan Plateau receives less than 5 inches (13 centimeters) of rain a year.
The Thar Desert lies in southeastern Pakistan and northwestern India. Much of the desert is a sandy wasteland. However, irrigation projects have made parts of the desert near the Indus River suitable for farming. 
Most of Pakistan has a dry climate, with hot summers and cool winters. Pakistan averages only about 10 inches (25 centimeters) of rain a year. But the amount of rainfall varies greatly from year to year. Long dry spells may be broken by severe rainstorms that cause rivers to overflow and flood the countryside. In general, most of the rain falls from July to September, when the summer monsoon (seasonal wind) blows across Pakistan.
Economy
Pakistan has a developing economy. Many of the country’s people live below the poverty line. Agriculture and service industries are the leading economic activities in Pakistan. Some leading manufacturing industries, such as food processing and textile production, rely on agriculture.
Natural resources.
Pakistan’s rivers are its most valuable natural resource. Agriculture, especially near the Indus River, is heavily dependent on the country’s large irrigation system. The rivers also provide an important source of hydroelectric power. Central Pakistan has extensive natural gas reserves.
Agriculture
employs about 45 percent of Pakistan’s labor force and accounts for about 25 percent of its gross domestic product (GDP), the total amount of goods and services produced in the country. However, Pakistan must import much of its food.
Cotton and wheat are the country’s chief crops. Pakistani farmers also grow fruits and vegetables, rice, and sugar cane. Although mechanized agriculture has made some inroads, most farmers rely on cattle and water buffaloes to till the land. These animals also provide meat, milk, and hides. Many Pakistani farmers tend goats and sheep. Some parts of the country have poultry farms. Mackerels, sardines, sharks, and shrimp are caught in the Arabian Sea.
Service industries
contribute about half of Pakistan’s GDP. The service sector has expanded considerably and is especially important in the major cities. Transportation, storage, and communication; and wholesale and retail trade are the most important service industries. Service industries are greatly helped by the approximately one million tourists who come from the United Kingdom, the United States, and other countries.
Manufacturing.
Cotton textiles and clothing are the leading manufactured products. Other significant industries include fertilizer and other chemical products; food products, such as flour and sugar; and iron and steel. Craftworkers, operating from home or in small factories, make carpets, embroidered goods, pottery, wooden and leather products, and other handicraft items.
Energy sources and mining.
Fossil fuels, especially natural gas and petroleum, provide over half of Pakistan’s energy needs. Coal and hydroelectric power provide most of the rest. A small amount of energy is produced by nuclear power.
Mining accounts for a small portion of Pakistan’s employment and GDP. The country has rich deposits of natural gas and oil. However, Pakistan must import much of its oil. Chromite, coal, gypsum, iron ore, limestone, and salt are among Pakistan’s other mined resources.
International trade.
Pakistan imports more than it exports. The country’s primary imports are chemicals, iron and steel, machinery, petroleum goods, and transportation equipment. Its main exports are leather goods; rice; and textiles, including garments, cotton cloth, and yarn. Pakistan’s chief trading partners include China, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States.
Transportation and communication.
Government-owned Pakistan Railways offers freight and passenger rail service. Paved roads link major towns and cities in Pakistan. Karachi is Pakistan’s main seaport. Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, and other Pakistani cities have international airports.
Some of Pakistan’s radio and television stations are owned by the government, and others are privately owned. Pakistan has a vibrant newspaper industry. Its publishers produce hundreds of daily newspapers and magazines in Urdu, English, and the regional languages.
History
Early civilizations.
Pakistan has a long and complex history, dating back at least 8,000 years to the Mehrgarh civilization in present-day Balochistan. Later, around 2600 B.C., one of the world’s first great civilizations developed in the Indus Valley in what are now Pakistan and northwestern India. Ruins of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (also spelled Moenjodaro), the two major cities of the civilization, lie in present-day Pakistan. The ruins show that both cities were large and well planned. From about 1900 to 1700 B.C., the Indus Valley civilization had gradually declined. Scholars do not know why it collapsed.
Invasions and conquests.
During the next several thousand years, many peoples from southwest and central Asia came into the region that is now Pakistan. About 1500 B.C., a central Asian people called Aryans came through the mountain passes to the Punjab region. In time, they settled across most of India. The Persians conquered the Punjab during the 500’s B.C. and made it part of the huge Achaemenid Empire.
In 326 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia took control of most of what is now Pakistan. A few years later, the emperor Chandragupta Maurya made the region part of the Mauryan Empire. The Mauryan Empire began to break up about 230 B.C. Greeks from the independent state of Bactria in central Asia then invaded the Indus Valley. They established a kingdom with capitals near the present-day cities of Peshawar and Rawalpindi.
About 100 B.C., Scythians from Afghanistan came into Balochistan and Sindh. In time, they conquered the Indus region. The Scythians were replaced by the Parthians, who, in turn, were conquered by the Kushans of central Asia. The Kushans ruled what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India from about A.D. 50 to the mid-200’s. They controlled the trade routes from China to India and the Middle East. Peshawar, the Kushan capital, became a commercial center.
During the mid-300’s, the Indus Valley became part of the Gupta Empire, which had expanded westward from northeastern India. Huns from central Asia overran Pakistan during the late 400’s.
The Islamic impact.
Around A.D. 712, Arab Muslims sailed across the Arabian Sea and invaded Sindh, bringing Islam to the region. Beginning about 1000, Muslims invaded northern Pakistan from Iran. Mahmud of Ghazni, an Afghan warrior of Turkic descent, established a Muslim kingdom that in time included the entire Indus Valley. Lahore became the capital of the kingdom and developed into a major center of Islamic culture.
In 1206, most of present-day Pakistan came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate, a Muslim empire based in northern India. Under the Delhi Sultanate, a distinctive Indo-Islamic culture developed. The sultanate lasted until 1526, when Babur, a Muslim ruler of Turkic and Mongol descent, invaded India from Afghanistan and founded the Mughal Empire.
The Mughal Empire
in time encompassed virtually all of what are now Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. Under Mughal rule, the Indo-Islamic culture reached its most sophisticated level. It gave rise to a new language, Urdu, which was influenced by both Hindi and Persian. A new religion called Sikhism, which drew upon elements in both Hinduism and Islam, came into being. 
In the 1700’s, regional rulers acquired greater power at the cost of the central Mughal government. Several groups, including Persians and Afghans, gained control of the region that is now Pakistan. Sikh kingdoms gained strength in the Punjab during the early 1800’s, while Sindh was ruled by independent Muslim kingdoms.
Colonialism.
In the 1500’s, European traders began competing for control of the profitable trade between Europe and southern Asia. In the 1600’s, after seeking permission from the Mughal emperors, a number of trading companies established settlements along the coastal regions of India. By the mid-1700’s, the British East India Company had emerged as the strongest trading power in India. As the Mughal Empire began to break up, the company gradually gained political control over much of India. It fought a series of wars in the Punjab and Sindh during the late 1830’s and 1840’s and added these territories to its holdings.
Resentment of British rule led to many small rebellions and, in 1857, to a widespread uprising. After assisting the British East India Company in crushing the 1857 rebellion, the United Kingdom took control of the company and its territories. Princes controlled the rest of India, and the British made treaty arrangements with these rulers. By 1900, the United Kingdom directly or indirectly controlled all of what is now Pakistan. The territories directly ruled by the United Kingdom were known as British India. 
The British introduced a number of reforms, including a Western system of education. Many Hindus enrolled in the British schools as a way to advance their position in the colonial system. Some middle- and upper-class Muslims also enrolled, but the majority of Muslims continued to attend their own schools, which stressed religious education. As a result, large numbers of Hindus gained positions in business and government, but the majority of Muslims remained farmers and laborers.
The nationalist movement.
The Indian National Congress was formed in 1885 to promote Indian self-government in British India. Hindus dominated the organization, and Muslim leaders disagreed on whether or not to cooperate with it. In 1906, some Muslims formed a separate political organization called the All-India Muslim League. The Congress and the Muslim League both sought greater self-government. But differences emerged over how to divide power fairly between Hindus and Muslims. The Muslims feared that Hindus would dominate an independent India. 
In 1940, the Muslim League demanded independence for the northwestern and northeastern areas of India, where the majority of the people were Muslims. The president of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, became the plan’s principal supporter. The name Pakistan, which means land of the pure in Urdu, came to be used for Jinnah’s proposed Muslim homelands.
Both the British government and the Indian National Congress rejected the League’s demands. To show its strength, the Muslim League declared Aug. 16, 1946, as Direct Action Day. Muslims held nationwide demonstrations calling for the establishment of Pakistan. Violence broke out between Muslims and Hindus. In 1947, hoping to end the violence, the United Kingdom and Hindu leaders agreed to partition India.
Independence.
Pakistan became an independent nation on Aug. 14, 1947. The next day, India gained independence. West Pakistan and East Pakistan were carved out of the northwestern and northeastern parts of India, separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. Jinnah became Pakistan’s first head of state. 
Violence between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs continued after the partition. Over 10 million people crossed the new borders. Hindus and Sikhs fled to India, and Muslims streamed into Pakistan. Riots killed at least half a million people.
Within months of partition, India and Pakistan went to war over Kashmir. A Hindu prince ruled this region, but most of its population was Muslim. When India and Pakistan were partitioned, the prince tried to avoid joining either country. Armed Pakistani tribesmen, backed by government troops, invaded Kashmir to claim it for Pakistan. In response, the prince joined Kashmir to India. Indian and Pakistani troops continued to fight until early 1949, when the United Nations negotiated a cease-fire.
Pakistan became a republic in 1956, but parliamentary elections did not take place as planned. Instead, the military under General Mohammad Ayub Khan assumed control of the state in 1958. Military leaders continued to control the government throughout the 1960’s. In 1965, India and Pakistan fought a second war over Kashmir.
Civil war.
The people of West and East Pakistan were divided as much by cultural differences as by geography. Only religion united the two groups. West Pakistan controlled the government, economy, and armed forces, which angered East Pakistanis. Bengali-speakers in East Pakistan also resented the government’s efforts to impose Urdu as the official language.
In 1970, Pakistan held elections for a National Assembly that would draft a new constitution. East Pakistan had over half of the country’s population, so a majority of the Assembly members represented East Pakistan. They hoped to frame a constitution that would give East Pakistan its due share of political and economic power.
In early 1971, Ayub Khan’s successor, General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan, postponed the first meeting of the National Assembly. Infuriated, East Pakistanis took to the streets, prompting a military crackdown. The riots grew into civil war. On March 26, 1971, East Pakistan declared its independence, calling itself Bangladesh. In December 1971, India sent its army to support the rebellion. The war developed into a major conflict with India, and the fighting spread to West Pakistan and Kashmir. On Dec. 16, 1971, Pakistan surrendered. Over a million people died in the fighting.
Yahya Khan resigned, and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, whose Pakistan People’s Party had won the largest number of seats in West Pakistan, took over as president. He moved swiftly to restore constitutional government and civilian rule.
Struggle for democracy.
In 1973, Pakistan adopted its third constitution, which provided for a two-chamber legislature, a president as head of state, and a prime minister as head of government. Bhutto became prime minister and concentrated power in his own hands. In 1977, he called elections in the face of mounting protest against his rule. Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party won the elections, but political opponents accused the party of election fraud. Street demonstrations against the government erupted in violence.
In July, General Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq ousted Bhutto from office and declared martial law. Zia assumed the presidency in 1978 while remaining chief martial law administrator. Zia’s regime convicted Bhutto of ordering the murder of a political opponent, sentenced him to death, and executed him in 1979.
When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979, Pakistan’s military supported Afghanistan’s Islamic resistance fighters. Zia postponed new elections indefinitely and initiated a series of Islamization policies, including a system of law enforcement and punishment based on Islamic principles. Many Islamization measures discriminated against women and minorities.
In 1985, Zia allowed new elections to national and provincial assemblies and lifted martial law. However, he also introduced an amendment to the Constitution that gave the president broad powers, including the power to dismiss elected governments and to dissolve Parliament. Zia used these powers in 1988 to dismiss the prime minister and dissolve Parliament. In August of that year, Zia died in a plane crash.
After the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989, Pakistan’s military continued to support Islamic extremist groups in Afghanistan. Chief among these groups were the Taliban, many of whom were educated in religious schools in what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. By the late 1990’s, the Taliban controlled most of Afghanistan.
From 1988 to 1999, two parties governed Pakistan alternately—the Pakistan People’s Party, led by Benazir Bhutto, the daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; and the Pakistan Muslim League, led by Nawaz Sharif. From 1985 to 1996, three presidents used Zia’s constitutional amendment to dismiss four elected governments and parliaments. After the Muslim League won elections in 1997 with a two-thirds majority, Pakistan’s legislature repealed the amendment. This reduced the powers of the presidency and made the office of prime minister, then held by Sharif, Pakistan’s most powerful government post. 
In May 1998, India carried out a series of nuclear tests and declared itself capable of producing and using nuclear weapons. Pakistan responded by conducting its own nuclear tests. The international community imposed sanctions on both nations, which hurt Pakistan’s economy.
In May 1999, conflict broke out again in Kashmir. Pakistani troops crossed the Line of Control—the boundary between Indian-controlled and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir—and occupied the Kargil region in Indian-held territory. Fighting then broke out between the two sides. In July, under pressure from the United States and other countries, Prime Minister Sharif called for the withdrawal of the Pakistani invaders.
Musharraf.
In October 1999, General Pervez Musharraf led a military coup that overthrew Sharif’s government. Musharraf suspended Parliament and the Constitution. He declared himself the head of a transitional government. Sharif was later exiled to Saudi Arabia. In 2001, Musharraf declared himself president and formally dissolved Parliament. 
Following the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States, Musharraf allowed U.S. forces to use Pakistani military bases and fly over Pakistani territory in a military campaign against terrorists in Afghanistan. Pakistani supporters of Afghanistan’s Taliban government protested against the U.S. attacks and against Musharraf for his support of the United States.
In December 2001, armed terrorists attacked India’s Parliament, killing or injuring over 20 people, though no elected officials were hurt. India blamed Pakistan for the attack, but Pakistan denied that it had supported the terrorists.
In a national referendum in 2002, voters approved the extension of Musharraf’s term as president for five years. Musharraf announced sweeping changes to Pakistan’s Constitution that were designed to cement his hold on power. In late 2002 and early 2003, the Constitution, as amended by Musharraf, was restored. Elections were held for both houses of Parliament.
Many members of Parliament protested Musharraf’s changes to the Constitution. At the end of 2003, a compromise was reached, and Parliament endorsed a revised version of Musharraf’s changes. As part of the compromise, Musharraf agreed to step down as head of Pakistan’s armed forces by the end of 2004. However, in December 2004, he announced that he would continue to serve as military chief. Parliament had passed a law the previous month allowing Musharraf to remain in the post.
In October 2005, a major earthquake hit north of the city of Islamabad. More than 73,000 people were killed in northern Pakistan and Pakistani-held Kashmir, and at least 1,300 were killed in Indian-held Kashmir. Over 3 million people were left homeless throughout the region.
In 2007, the Pakistani Parliament held a presidential election. Preliminary results showed Musharraf as the winner. However, the Supreme Court debated whether Musharraf had been eligible to be reelected as president while also serving as army chief. Musharraf declared emergency rule, dismissed the Supreme Court judges, and placed them under house arrest. Musharraf was sworn in as president in November, after stepping down as army chief. He lifted emergency rule on December 15.
On Dec. 27, 2007, Benazir Bhutto, Pakistan’s prime minister from 1988 to 1990 and from 1993 to 1996, was assassinated. She was killed as she was campaigning for a third term.
Recent developments.
Pakistan held parliamentary elections in early 2008. Bhutto’s party, the Pakistan People’s Party, won the most seats. In March, the new Parliament elected Yousaf Raza Gilani as prime minister. In August, they announced plans to impeach Musharraf. Musharraf then resigned as president of Pakistan. Asif Ali Zardari, Bhutto’s widower, was elected president in September.
Also in September, a suicide bomber drove a truck containing explosives into an Islamabad hotel. The truck bomb killed at least 60 people and wounded hundreds of others.
In 2009, Pakistan’s government announced that it would allow the Taliban to impose Sharī`a (strict Islamic law) in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa’s Swat Valley. In return, the Taliban agreed to end clashes with Pakistani troops that had raged since 2007. However, the Taliban quickly attempted to expand its control over neighboring areas, sparking new conflicts with the military.
In 2010, Pakistan’s government approved a constitutional amendment stripping away many of the powers that had been granted to the office of president under Zia and Musharraf.
In July and August 2010, monsoon rains caused flooding along the Indus River throughout the country. The flooding, which damaged or destroyed hundreds of villages, left more than 1,900 people dead and millions of others homeless.
On May 2 (May 1 in the United States), 2011, American military forces killed al-Qa`ida leader Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, a city northeast of Islamabad. Bin Laden was believed to have masterminded the September 11 terrorist attacks as well as a number of other attacks against U.S. targets.
In April 2012, Pakistan’s Supreme Court convicted Prime Minister Gilani of contempt of court after he refused to pursue corruption charges against President Zardari. Zardari had been imprisoned on corruption charges from 1996 to 2004. He was never convicted, and his supporters claimed the charges were politically motivated. In June 2012, Pakistan’s Parliament removed Gilani as prime minister after the Supreme Court ruled that his April conviction disqualified him from serving in Parliament or serving as prime minister.
In 2013, Sharif led his Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz (PML-N) party to victory in parliamentary elections and became prime minister. In 2017, the Supreme Court disqualified him from office over charges of corruption, and Sharif resigned as prime minister. He was replaced by a political ally, Shahid Khaqan Abbasi. In July 2018, Sharif was found guilty of corruption. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison. That same month, former cricketer Imran Khan led the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf Party (PTI) to victory in general elections. Khan became prime minister in August. In September, Arif Alvi, a high-ranking member of the PTI, was elected president of Pakistan.
In late 2019, a special Pakistan court sentenced former president Musharraf to death for high treason for suspending the Constitution and declaring emergency rule in order to remain in office in 2007. Musharraf, who had left Pakistan in 2016 for the United Arab Emirates to seek medical treatment, called the sentence politically motivated. In January 2020, the provincial high court in Lahore declared the special court unconstitutional and overturned the conviction.
In 2022, Imran Khan stepped down as prime minister due to a no-confidence vote in the National Assembly. The Assembly elected opposition leader Shehbaz Sharif, head of the PML-N and a brother of former prime minister Nawaz Sharif, as the new prime minister.
Also in 2022, heavy monsoon rains produced severe flooding that impacted about a third of Pakistan. The flooding caused the deaths of more than 1,500 people from mid-June to September. It also destroyed or damaged hundreds of thousands of homes.
In February 2024, candidates from the PTI won the most seats in a parliamentary election, but not a majority. The PML-N and the Pakistan People’s Party formed a coalition government, and the National Assembly reelected Shehbaz Sharif as prime minister in March.
