Poland

Poland is a large nation in central Europe. It borders on the Baltic Sea. Warsaw is its capital and largest city.

Poland is named for the Polanie, a Slavic tribe that lived more than a thousand years ago in what is now Poland. The name Polanie comes from a Slavic word that means plain or field. Flat plains and gently rolling hills cover most of the country.

At one time, the people of Poland ruled an empire that stretched across most of central Europe. But foreign powers conquered and divided Poland and brought an end to its existence as a separate nation. In 1918, however, after more than a hundred years of foreign rule, Poland became an independent republic.

Poland experienced great economic, political, and social changes during the 1900’s. Before World War II (1939-1945), Poland was largely agricultural, and most of the people were farmers living in poverty. After the war, Poland began to develop into an industrial nation. Many people moved to the cities to take jobs in factories.

In the mid-1940’s, Poland became a Communist country. The Communist Party controlled the Polish government and placed many restrictions on the freedom of the people. The party maintained power continuously until 1989, when non-Communists won free parliamentary elections.

In the 1990’s, Poland restored freedom to its people and transformed its economy to a private enterprise system. In 2004, the country joined the European Union, an organization of European countries that cooperate in economics and politics.

Government

National government.

Poland is a republic. Its current constitution went into effect in 1997.

The National Assembly is Poland’s parliament. It has two houses. The lower house, called the Sejm, has 460 members. The upper house, or Senate, has 100 members. Members of both houses serve four-year terms. The duties of the National Assembly include passing laws and supervising the other branches of the government.

The president is the head of state. The president’s powers include the ability to declare a state of emergency, to veto legislation (which may be overturned by the Sejm), and to dissolve the National Assembly. The president is elected to a term of five years.

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Poland's national anthem

The president appoints a Council of Ministers on the advice of the prime minister. The Council of Ministers carries out the operations of the government. The Council of Ministers includes a prime minister and a number of other ministers. The prime minister is the head of the government.

Local government.

Poland is divided into 16 voivodships (regions). A leader called a voivod, appointed by the prime minister, heads each region. The regions are divided into powiats (districts), which are made up of gminas (communities). Each region, district, and community has an elected council.

Politics.

Poland’s important political organizations include Law and Justice, Civic Platform, The Left, and the Polish People’s Party. The conservative Law and Justice party supports traditional social values. Civic Platform, a center-right party, favors policies that help Poland’s businesses. The Left supports equal rights and socialist economic policies. The Polish People’s Party is a rural-based centrist party that favors agricultural development.

Courts.

The Supreme Court is the highest court of Poland. The president, on the recommendation of the National Council of the Judiciary, appoints Supreme Court judges to indefinite terms. A Constitutional Tribunal has the power to rule on whether laws comply with Poland’s Constitution.

Armed forces.

Poland’s military includes an army, an air force, and a navy. Men and women serve in the military on a volunteer basis.

People

Almost all of the people of Poland are Poles. They are descended from Slavic tribes that settled on the Vistula and Warta rivers several thousand years ago. Polish, the official language, is related to Czech, Slovak, and other Slavic languages.

Minority groups make up only a small percentage of the population. The largest minority groups are Belarusians, Germans, and Ukrainians.

Way of life

Housing.

In the cities, most Polish families live in simple two- or three-room apartments. In rural areas, small brick or wooden cottages provide housing.

Food.

Bread, pork, sausages, potatoes, apples, and dairy products are favorite foods. Meaty stews, hearty beet or cabbage soup, and mushrooms are popular. The Polish people also enjoy rich pastries and fish, especially on holidays.

Recreation.

Camping and hiking are some of the popular recreational activities in Poland. Poles also enjoy soccer and other sports.

Religion.

The Poles adopted Christianity in A.D. 966. Throughout their history, they remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church, though people in neighboring countries practiced Protestant or Eastern Orthodox religions. During the 1800’s, when Poland did not exist as a separate nation, loyalty to the Roman Catholic Church helped hold the Polish people together.

In the late 1940’s and early 1950’s, the country’s Communist leaders tried to destroy the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in Poland. They restricted religious practices and imprisoned many priests. Polish Catholics resisted, however. In 1956, after antigovernment riots took place, the government discontinued most of its policies against the Roman Catholic Church. Today, Poles have complete freedom of religion.

A large majority of the people of Poland are Roman Catholics. There are thousands of Roman Catholic churches in the country as well as thousands of religious instruction centers. The Roman Catholic Church also operates the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw and the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin. Religious minority groups in Poland include Protestants, Muslims, Jews, and members of various Eastern Orthodox Churches.

Education.

Poles have a long tradition of respect for education. Polish scholars, such as the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, have made important contributions in many fields. The first Polish university, the University of Kraków (now Jagiellonian University), was founded in 1364. Poland established a government ministry of education as early as 1773. Until the 1900’s, however, education was reserved for only a small, privileged section of the population. Today, almost all adult Poles can read and write.

Polish law requires children from age 7 to 15 to attend school. Most students attend free, government-operated schools. But an increasing number of students enroll in private schools.

After completing the elementary school program, students may attend vocational schools or four-year secondary schools. Secondary school graduates must then pass entrance examinations for entry into schools of higher education.

Poland has 12 universities. It also has many technical institutes and other specialized schools.

The arts.

Poland has produced many outstanding artists, musicians, and writers. Cultural life in Poland flourished during the 1400’s and 1500’s. In the 1500’s, the poets Mikolaj Rej and Jan Kochanowski were among the first writers to use the Polish language for their works. Loading the player...
Polish orchestra music

Polish culture also flourished during the 1800’s, when the Polish national identity was being threatened by the Germans and the Russians. The paintings of Jan Matejko portrayed scenes from Polish history. The composer Frédéric Chopin wrote many works based on Polish dances, such as the mazurka and the polonaise. Another composer and pianist, Ignace Jan Paderewski, became a leading Polish statesman. Outstanding Polish writers of the 1800’s included the poet Adam Mickiewicz, the playwright Stanislaw Wyspianski, and the novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz. Sienkiewicz won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1905 for his works, which include the novel Quo Vadis? Another Polish novelist, Wladyslaw Reymont, won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1924 for The Peasants and other novels. Two Polish poets have won Nobel Prizes for literature. Czeslaw Milosz received the award in 1980, and Wislawa Szymborska in 1996.

Many Poles have won fame in the graphic arts, especially in poster design. Movies are also a popular art form in Poland.

Beginning in the late 1940’s, Poland’s Communist leaders restricted cultural activity that did not promote Communist goals. But a series of antigovernment protests from the 1950’s to the 1980’s resulted in increases in cultural freedom. Today, there are few, if any, restrictions on cultural activities. The government has encouraged the preservation of traditional folk arts and music.

The land

Land regions.

Poland can be divided into seven land regions: (1) the Coastal Lowlands, (2) the Baltic Lakes Region, (3) the Central Plains, (4) the Polish Uplands, (5) the Carpathian Forelands, (6) the Sudeten Mountains, and (7) the Western Carpathian Mountains.

The Coastal Lowlands

extend in a narrow strip along the Baltic coast of northwestern Poland. Sandy beaches line much of the generally smooth coastline. The coast forms natural harbors at Gdansk, Gdynia, and Szczecin. These three ports are the only major cities located in the lowlands.

The Baltic Lakes Region

covers most of northern Poland. This scenic, hilly area has thousands of small lakes. Forests and peat bogs (swamps made up of decayed plants) cover parts of the area. Most of the land is not good for farming, though some farmers raise potatoes and rye. Lumbering is the most important industry. The Baltic Lakes Region is thinly populated. It is a popular vacation spot, where many Poles enjoy camping, hiking, and fishing.

The Central Plains

stretch across the entire width of Poland south of the Baltic Lakes Region. The low-lying plains make up Poland’s major agricultural area, though other regions have richer soil. Farmers in the plains grow potatoes, rye, sugar beets, and other crops. This region has several of Poland’s most important cities, including Poznan, Warsaw, and Wroclaw.

The Polish Uplands

consist of hills, low mountains, and plateaus that rise south of the plains region. The densely populated uplands contain most of Poland’s mineral wealth and much of its richest farmland. One of the world’s largest coal fields lies around the city of Katowice. Coal-mining and metal-processing industries have made the Katowice area the most highly industrialized region in Poland. Copper, lead, and zinc are also found in the uplands. Fertile soil covers much of the area, especially in the east. Corn, potatoes, and wheat rank among the region’s major crops.

The Carpathian Forelands

lie within the branches of the Vistula and San rivers in southern Poland. Much of this region is densely populated. Crops thrive in the rich soil that covers parts of the gently rolling forelands. Iron and steel industries have developed around Kraków, the region’s most important manufacturing center.

The Sudeten Mountains

border southwestern Poland. Forests cover the rounded peaks of the Sudetens, most of which are located less than 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) above sea level. The valleys and foothills are used for crops and pastureland. Textile industries operate in a large number of the small cities and towns of the Sudeten Mountains.

The Western Carpathian Mountains

form the southernmost region of Poland. These steep, scenic mountains rise up to 8,199 feet (2,499 meters) at Rysy peak, the highest point in Poland. Rural towns and villages are scattered throughout the region. Bears, wild cats, and other animals live in the thickly forested mountains, and the region has several national parks.

Rivers and canals

form a network of navigable waterways in Poland. The longest river, the Vistula, flows 675 miles (1,086 kilometers) through Poland from the Western Carpathians to the Baltic Sea. Other important rivers include the Bug, the Oder, and the Warta.

Climate

The climate of Poland varies greatly from one part of the country to another. In general, the coast has milder weather than the inland regions, and the mountainous zones are cooler than the lowlands. Temperatures throughout the country average 26 °F (23 °C) in January and 73 °F (23 °C) in July. The average annual precipitation (rain, snow, and other forms of moisture) totals 24 inches (61 centimeters).

Economy

Natural resources.

Poland’s most important natural resource is coal. One of the richest coal fields in the world lies in southern Poland. Poland also has deposits of copper, lead, salt, silver, sulfur, and zinc.

Farmland covers about half of Poland. But much of the soil is of poor quality and must be fertilized. Forests cover about 30 percent of the land.

Service industries

are economic activities that, instead of producing goods, provide services. Service industries account for over half of Poland’s employment and about two-thirds of its gross domestic product (GDP), the value of all goods and services produced in the country in a year. Hotels, restaurants, and shops benefit from the tens of millions of tourists who visit from the Czech Republic, Germany, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and other countries. Many people also work in education, health care, and public administration.

Manufacturing and mining

also contribute much to Poland’s economy. Many factories are in central and south-central Poland. The chief manufactured products of Poland include automobiles, chemicals, food products, iron and steel, machinery, ships, and tires. Poland is an important producer of coal, copper, and silver. However, the country must import most of its natural gas and petroleum.

Agriculture

contributes a small part of Poland’s GDP, but it employs about one-sixth of the country’s workforce. Poland’s agricultural production is focused in the central part of the country. Crops and livestock each contribute about half of Poland’s total farming production.

Poland ranks among the world’s leading producers of carrots, mushrooms, potatoes, rye, and sugar beets. The country is also a leading producer of such fruits as apples, blueberries, raspberries, and strawberries. Other important crops include barley, corn, rapeseed, tomatoes, and wheat. Polish farmers raise beef and dairy cattle, hogs, and poultry for meat and eggs.

International trade.

Poland imports about as much as it exports. The country’s leading trade partners include China, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Its chief exports include cars, food products, furniture, machinery, and petroleum products. Poland imports food products, machinery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals (medicinal drugs), transportation equipment, and other goods.

Transportation.

Poland has an extensive system of roads, and these roads provide the chief means of transportation in Poland. The country’s railroads also provide much of the transportation. The railroad network links most Polish cities and towns. The chief seaports in Poland are Gdansk, Gdynia, Świnoujście, and Szczecin. Polish Airlines (LOT), the country’s main airline, operates both domestic and international flights. Poland’s chief airport is at Warsaw.

Communication.

Poland publishes dozens of daily newspapers. The leading newspaper, which is published in Warsaw, is Fakt. Radio and television stations are both privately and government-owned.

History

As early as 2000 B.C., the area that is now Poland was inhabited by the ancestors of Slavic tribes. During the A.D. 800’s, several Slavic tribes united under the Polanie, one of the largest groups in the area.

The early Polish state.

Members of the Piast family became Poland’s first rulers. By the mid-900’s, Prince Mieszko I ruled over most of the land along the Vistula and Oder rivers. His son, Boleslaw I, conquered part of what is now the Czech Republic and parts of what are now Germany, Slovakia, and Ukraine. In 1025, Boleslaw was crowned the first king of Poland. After his death later that year, Poland went through periods of warfare and disunity. By the mid-1100’s, the country had broken up into several sections, each ruled by a different noble.

During the 1200’s, various peoples invaded and conquered parts of Poland. Most of the country was finally reunified in the early 1300’s. Casimir the Great, the last Piast monarch, ruled Poland from 1333 to 1370. Casimir formed a strong central government, strengthened the economy, and encouraged cultural development.

The Polish empire.

In 1386, Queen Jadwiga of Poland married Wladyslaw Jagiello, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Jagiello ruled Poland and Lithuania, but each country remained largely self-governing.

Jagiellonian kings ruled Poland for nearly 200 years. Under their leadership, Poland expanded its territory and made important advances in its cultural, economic, and political development. The Polish empire reached its height during the 1500’s, when it covered a large part of central and eastern Europe, including Belarus and Ukraine. In 1493, the first national parliament of Poland was established. Poland and Lithuania were united under a single parliament in 1569.

The decline of Poland.

In spite of the advances of the Jagiellonian period, signs of strain developed in Poland after the mid-1500’s. The monarchy began to lose power to the nobles, who dominated the parliament. After the death of the last Jagiellonian monarch in 1572, Polish kings were elected by the nobles. Some of the elected kings were foreigners, and these kings proved to be ineffective rulers.

Rivalries among the nobles weakened the Polish parliament, and costly wars ruined the economy. Poland lost much of its territory in Ukraine as a result of a rebellion that took place there in the mid-1600’s. In 1655, Sweden won control over most of Poland’s Baltic provinces. A series of wars with Turkey finally ended with a Polish victory at the Battle of Vienna in 1683.

The partitions.

Poland’s decline continued into the 1700’s. In 1772, Austria, Prussia, and Russia took advantage of Poland’s weakness and partitioned (divided) Polish territory among themselves. Austria seized land in southern Poland. Prussia took land located in western Poland. Russia took land in the east. As a result, Poland lost about a third of its territory and half its population.

After the first partition, the Polish government adopted a series of reform measures to stop the country’s decay. In 1791, a new constitution restored the hereditary monarchy but also incorporated democratic procedures. However, the reforms came too late. In 1793, Prussia and Russia seized additional territory in eastern and western Poland. This second partition led to an uprising among Poles in 1794. Polish forces under Tadeusz Kosciuszko fought Russian and Prussian troops but were defeated. Austria, Prussia, and Russia carried out the third partition of Poland in 1795, dividing what remained of the country among themselves. Poland no longer existed as a separate country.

After 1795, many Poles joined the French forces of Napoleon Bonaparte to fight against Austria and Prussia. In 1807, Napoleon gained control of Prussian Poland and made it into a Polish state called the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. But after Napoleon’s final defeat in 1815, Poland was again divided among Austria, Prussia, and Russia. A small, self-governing Kingdom of Poland was established under Russian control.

The struggle against foreign rule.

In 1830, Poles in the Kingdom of Poland rebelled against the Russians. But Russia crushed the revolt. Other unsuccessful revolts were launched against Austria and Prussia. After a second revolt in the Kingdom of Poland in 1863, Russia tried to destroy Polish culture by making Russian the official language there. After 1871, when Prussia formed the German Empire, Poles under Prussian control were forced to adopt the German language.

Poles under Austrian rule won some self-government in the late 1800’s. In the 1880’s and 1890’s, Polish political parties formed in all three parts of Poland. Leading politicians included Jozef Piłsudski and Roman Dmowski.

World War I and independence.

After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Piłsudski led Polish forces on the side of Austria against Russia. The Russians were driven out of most of Poland by 1915. In the following year, Austria and Germany established a small Polish kingdom under their protection. In 1917, Dmowski formed the Polish National Committee in Paris to win Allied support for an independent Poland. After the Allied victory in 1918, an independent Polish republic was proclaimed. Piłsudski became the first chief of state.

Under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended military actions against Germany, Poland regained large amounts of territory from Germany. The port of Gdansk was made the Free City of Danzig under supervision of the League of Nations. The return of land in Pomerania, a region along the Baltic coast, gave Poland access to the sea. In the east, Poland tried to reestablish the boundary it had with Russia before partition. This led to a war with Russia in 1919 and 1920. The 1921 Treaty of Riga represented a compromise. It established a border that gave Poland some of its prepartition land.

Rebuilding the Polish nation.

The new Polish state faced many problems. Its leaders had to unify three regions that had been separate for more than 100 years. About a third of its population consisted of minority groups, some of whom resented Polish rule. In addition, the partitions and World War I had disrupted the country’s economy. During the 1920’s and 1930’s, Poland slowly rebuilt its economy and developed uniform systems of government, transportation, and education.

The 1921 Constitution of Poland provided for a democratic government. But many political parties competed for power, and the government was unstable. In 1926, Piłsudski led a military overthrow of the government. He then took control. In 1935, Poland adopted a new constitution that confirmed many of Piłsudski’s unrestricted powers and limited the development of democracy. Piłsudski died in 1935. But his successors continued the policy of semi-authoritarian rule.

In the 1930’s, Poland began to be threatened by the growing military strength of Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.). The U.S.S.R., also called the Soviet Union, had been formed in 1922 under Russia’s leadership, and it existed until 1991.

In 1939, German dictator Adolf Hitler demanded that Danzig (Gdansk in Polish) be given to Germany. He also demanded transportation rights across eastern Pomerania. The Poles resisted Hitler’s demands and formed an alliance with the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom and France, which had signed an alliance pact with Poland in 1921, pledged to defend Poland if the country’s independence was directly threatened.

World War II.

In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a treaty in which they secretly planned to divide Poland between themselves. On September 1, Germany attacked Poland. The United Kingdom and France then declared war on Germany. The U.S.S.R. invaded Poland on September 17. The Poles fought bravely, but were defeated within a month. Germany and the U.S.S.R. then divided Poland. In 1941, Germany attacked the U.S.S.R. and seized all of Poland.

Shortly after the fall of Poland, a Polish government-in-exile was formed in Paris. Later, it was moved to London. Polish armed forces joined Allied forces in many campaigns. In addition, an underground Home Army operated inside Poland against the Germans.

After the German attack against the U.S.S.R. in 1941, Polish Communists formed an exile center in the U.S.S.R. Poles under the command of the U.S.S.R. fought against Germany on the eastern front. The Communists also formed their own small underground movement. In 1942, they established the Polish Communist Party. Wladyslaw Gomulka became the party leader in 1943.

In 1944, the Soviet Union’s army invaded Poland and began to drive out the Germans. Also in 1944, the Home Army staged an uprising against the Germans in Warsaw. But after two months of fighting, the Home Army had to surrender. That same year, a Polish Committee of National Liberation was formed in Lublin. The U.S.S.R. recognized the committee, which consisted almost entirely of Communists, as the provisional government of Poland. At the 1945 Yalta Conference, the Allies agreed to recognize the committee after it was expanded to include representatives of the London government-in-exile and other non-Communist groups.

Poland suffered widespread death and destruction during the war. Much of Warsaw and other cities were destroyed. Millions of Poles, including most Polish Jews, were put into concentration camps when the U.S.S.R. and Germany occupied Poland. Between 1939 and 1945, over 6 million Poles died. About half were Jews.

Agreements reached at the end of the war shifted Poland’s borders westward, and millions of Poles were resettled. The U.S.S.R. kept most of eastern Poland. In return, Poland received the German lands east of the Oder and Neisse rivers, including major industrial regions.

Communist rule

was opposed by most Poles. But the Communists used police power and other methods to crush resistance. Communist-controlled elections in 1947 gave them a large majority in the new legislature. By 1948, Communist rule was firmly established.

In the late 1940’s, the U.S.S.R. gained increasing influence over the Polish government. In 1949, a Soviet military officer, Konstantin Rokossovsky, was made Poland’s defense minister. Polish Communists suspected of disloyalty to the Soviet Union were removed from power. They included Wladyslaw Gomulka, who, as first secretary, held the most powerful post in Poland. He was removed from his post in 1948 and imprisoned in 1951.

In 1952, Poland adopted a constitution patterned after that of the U.S.S.R. The constitution established the country as a people’s republic. In theory, the working people of Poland held all political power. However, the Communist Party actually controlled the government. Only a few other small parties were allowed to exist, and they supported the Communist Party policies.

The government took control of the economy. The country’s Communist leaders established a system of government-owned industries. They developed new industrial regions around Kraków, Warsaw, and other cities. Many people moved from the rural areas to take jobs in the cities.

The Communists forced farmers to give up their land and join collective farms that were managed by the government. However, many farmers resisted, and the collectivization program ended in the 1950’s.

The government placed restrictions on religious practices. As part of an antireligion campaign, the Communists imprisoned Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski, who was the head of the Roman Catholic Church in Poland.

Antigovernment protests.

During the 1950’s, many Poles began to express discontent with government policies and resentment of domination by the U.S.S.R. In 1956, workers in Poznan and other cities staged antigovernment riots. Wladyslaw Gomulka was then freed from prison and again became head of the Communist Party. He ended the forced take-over of farmland and eased the campaign against religion. Cardinal Wyszynski was released from prison, and defense minister Rokossovsky was dismissed.

In the 1960’s, Polish intellectuals protested against government limits on freedom of expression, and new disputes erupted between the government and the Catholic Church. In 1970, strikes and riots broke out in Gdansk and other cities. Thousands of Poles demanded better living conditions and economic and political reforms. After days of riots, Gomulka resigned, and Edward Gierek became the Communist Party leader.

Gierek’s leadership brought better relations between the government and the Catholic Church. Although Poland remained a loyal ally of the Soviet Union, its government took steps during the 1970’s to improve relations with non-Communist countries.

In 1978, Cardinal Karol Wojtyla, a Polish cardinal and the archbishop of Kraków, was elected pope of the Roman Catholic Church. He took the name of John Paul II. He became the first Polish pope in history and the first non-Italian pope since 1523. He called on Poland’s government to allow greater freedom to its people.

Poland struggled with high prices and shortages of food and consumer goods. In 1976, Poles rioted after the government announced big increases in food prices. Government leaders then deferred the increases. Economic conditions worsened in the late 1970’s.

During the summer of 1980, thousands of workers in Gdansk and other cities went on strike. They demanded higher pay, free trade unions, and political reforms. Communist leaders promised to meet many of the demands. In September, the Central Committee forced Gierek to resign and elected Stanislaw Kania to replace him. In November, the Polish government recognized Solidarity, an organization of free trade unions. This was the first time a Communist country recognized a labor organization that was independent of the Communist Party. Lech Walesa headed Solidarity.

Economic problems, including food shortages, increased. In October 1981, the Central Committee made Kania resign and elected Wojciech Jaruzelski, an army general, head of the Communist Party.

Jaruzelski’s government faced continuing economic problems and demands by the people for economic improvements and greater political freedom. In December 1981, Jaruzelski imposed martial law. He suspended Solidarity’s activities and had Walesa and hundreds of union leaders held as prisoners. In October 1982, the government officially outlawed Solidarity. Walesa and some Solidarity members were released in late 1982. The remaining prisoners were released over the next several years. Jaruzelski’s government formally ended martial law in July 1983. But many controls over the people’s freedom were retained.

Free elections.

In 1989, the government reached an agreement with Solidarity that led to the legalization of the union and to changes in the structure of the government. Under the agreement, an office of president with broad powers was created, and a new legislature was formed. An upper house, the Senate, was added to the Sejm, the lower house, to form the National Assembly.

The elections that were held in 1989 were the freest in Poland since the end of World War II. Non-Communist candidates were allowed to compete for all Senate seats and some seats in the Sejm. The remaining seats in the Sejm were reserved for members and allies of the Communist Party.

Solidarity candidates won all the lower-house seats they contested and all but one of the upper-house seats. After the elections, parliament elected Jaruzelski president and appointed Tadeusz Mazowiecki, a Solidarity leader, as prime minister. Mazowiecki became Poland’s first non-Communist prime minister since World War II. The new government began to end Communist controls over the lives of the people.

Also in 1989, the government began a program to sell government-owned industries to private owners. Much progress was made in this program in the 1990’s. In 1990, Poland’s Communist Party was dissolved.

In June 1990, Solidarity split into several groups. One group supported Mazowiecki, and another supported Walesa. In November, Mazowiecki, Walesa, and Stanislaw Tyminski ran in a presidential election. Mazowiecki finished third and then resigned as prime minister. Walesa won a runoff election against Tyminski in December and became Poland’s president. After the election, Walesa resigned as head of Solidarity.

Parliamentary elections were held in October 1991. This time, all seats in the legislature were contested. The 1989 system of reserving seats in the lower house for members of specific parties was abolished. The Democratic Union, a party that formed out of Mazowiecki’s branch of Solidarity, won the most seats in both the Sejm and the Senate. But it was not able to form a stable coalition because of the large number of parties that had won parliamentary seats.

By 1993, many people were discouraged by economic hardship brought on by the change to a free-market economy. In elections held in 1993, the Democratic Left Alliance and the Polish People’s Party won the most seats in parliament. Both parties included many former Communist Party members. The parties formed a coalition government and said they would continue economic reforms. In 1995, Aleksander Kwasniewski, a former Communist leader, was elected president in a narrow victory over Walesa. Kwasniewski aimed to continue the reform program and to make Poland a part of Europe’s economic and security organizations.

In 1997 elections, Solidarity won the most seats in parliament and defeated the former Communists who had been in control. Solidarity formed a new coalition government with the Freedom Union. Also in 1997, the country’s new constitution went into effect.

Recent developments.

In 1999, Poland became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance of Western nations. Kwasniewski was reelected president of Poland in 2000. In the 2001 parliamentary elections, the Democratic Left Alliance won the most seats. It formed a coalition government with the Polish People’s Party. In 2004, Poland joined the European Union (EU). The EU is an organization of European countries that promotes economic and political cooperation among its members.

In elections in 2005, the conservative Law and Justice party won about a third of the seats in the Sejm. The party formed a coalition government with two smaller parties. Also in 2005, Lech Kaczyński, one of the founders of Law and Justice, was elected president. His twin brother Jaroslaw, also a party cofounder, became prime minister in 2006. In 2007, the coalition government collapsed, and the Sejm voted to dissolve itself and call early elections. In the elections, the Civic Platform party won the most seats. It formed a coalition government with the Polish People’s Party.

On April 10, 2010, Lech Kaczyński and 95 other people, including many of Poland’s highest military and civilian leaders, were killed in a plane crash near Smolensk, Russia. The Civic Platform’s Bronisław Komorowski, speaker of the Sejm, was appointed acting president. Later in 2010, Komorowski was elected to a five-year term as president.

In 2015, Polish voters elected conservative European Parliament member Andrzej Duda as the nation’s new president. Duda’s Law and Justice Party gained a majority in the Sejm. Observers agreed, however, that party leader Jaroslaw Kaczyński remained the country’s most powerful political figure. In 2019 elections, Law and Justice maintained a majority in the Sejm. In 2020, concerns about the spread of the COVID-19 disease led the government to delay the presidential election. In July, Duda narrowly defeated Rafal Trzaskowski, the mayor of Warsaw, in the election for president. In 2021, three members of the Law and Justice Party left the party, leaving Law and Justice without a majority in the Sejm.

Fear of Russian aggression rose throughout Poland in February 2022 when Russian forces invaded Ukraine, Poland’s neighbor to the east. Millions of Ukrainians sought refuge in Poland in the months following the invasion. Thousands of Polish families opened their homes to Ukrainians fleeing the war.

Nearly 75 percent of Polish voters cast ballots in October 2023 parliamentary elections, the highest turnout in more than 100 years. A conservative alliance led by Law and Justice won the most seats but fell far short of a majority. In December, a coalition of moderate and left-leaning parties formed a government under Civic Platform leader Donald Tusk, who became prime minister. Tusk had also served as Poland’s prime minister from 2007 to 2014 and as president of the European Council from 2014 to 2019. The European Council establishes the political goals of the European Union.