Political party is an organized group of people who control or seek to control a government. In democratic countries, political parties compete against one another in elections to keep or gain control of a government. In the United States, Canada, and Australia, political parties are active on the national; state, provincial, or territorial; and local levels. In other nations, political parties are mainly active on the national level.
Political parties are absolutely necessary to democratic government. Most modern democracies are representative democracies. That is, the people elect representatives to act as their agents in making and enforcing laws. In a representative democracy, some means is needed for nominating candidates for public office and for selecting issues for public debate. Political parties perform these functions. At election time, the people vote into office the candidates of their choice. Political parties are voluntary organizations and want as many members as possible. Some of these parties have rules and membership dues. Others have practically no rules and require no dues.
Most dictatorships allow only one political party—the party that controls the government. That party also tightly controls who may run for election.
This article primarily discusses political parties in the United States. For information about the political parties of other nations, see the Government sections of individual country articles.
Party functions
In democratic countries, political parties perform several important tasks. (1) They select candidates to run for public office. (2) They help organize the government. (3) They provide opposition to the party in power. (4) They raise funds to conduct election campaigns. Other functions of parties in democratic countries include informing voters about public affairs and about problems that need government action. In one-party nations, the chief functions of political parties are to select candidates for office and organize the government.
Selecting candidates.
In one-party nations, the candidates the party selects to run for office automatically win election because they have no opposition. In China, for example, the Communist Party—the only party allowed—chooses the candidates for office.
In nations that have two or more parties, each party selects candidates for the various public offices. The voters then decide which candidates among the parties win office. Party leaders try to select candidates who have voter appeal and experience for the office.
In the United States.
During the early history of the United States, party leaders selected candidates for office in meetings called caucuses. But the caucus system became unpopular because it gave other party members little voice in the selection of candidates. In addition, one person or a small group of persons sometimes gained control of a caucus and used it for private gain.
By about 1840, the convention system for nominating candidates was in general use. Under this system, party members chose delegates to represent them at nominating conventions. But party bosses and political machines (organizations within a party) gained control of many conventions. Many delegates voted the way they were told or paid to vote. Today, only a few states hold conventions to make some nominations for state and local offices and to discuss party affairs. The two major U.S. political parties—the Democratic and Republican parties—still hold a national convention every four years to officially nominate candidates for president and vice president.
During the early 1900’s, most U.S. states replaced the convention system with primary elections to select candidates for office. The aim was to reduce party control in the selection of candidates. Today, states that follow the primary system hold either open or closed primary elections for state offices. In an open primary, each voter receives the ballots of all parties holding primaries. In the voting booth, the voter selects which ballot to use. In a closed primary, voters receive only the ballot of the party to which they belong. Since the early 1900’s, the Republican and Democratic parties have relied on primary elections—and, in some states, caucuses—to select their presidential candidates. The parties then formally nominate the candidates at their national convention.
In Canada and Australia.
Like the United States, Canada and Australia have systems of government and politics that tend to encourage different methods of candidate selection among provinces, territories, and states, and among the political parties. In Canada, electoral districts for the House of Commons are often referred to as ridings. The Liberal and Conservative parties require that candidates for nomination submit the necessary number of signatures from party voters in their ridings to the provincial or territorial campaign chairs. Candidates must receive the chairs’ approval to be qualified nomination contestants. The chairs then send the names and supporting documents of qualified nomination contestants to a national committee. Voters in party meetings in every province and territory then nominate candidates from the contestants approved by the committee.
The New Democratic Party (NDP) and Bloc Québécois (BQ) have candidate selection procedures similar to those of the Liberal and Conservative parties. The NDP, however, has an especially strong affirmative action policy in its local and regional party associations and rules. The purpose of the policy is to increase the number of women and minorities who are nominated as NDP candidates to the House of Commons. The BQ’s nominations to the House of Commons are determined during nominating meetings organized by local party committees. The BQ’s electoral appeal is mostly limited to francophone (French-speaking) Canadians in Quebec who support increased sovereignty (self-rule) for the province.
In Australia, different states and parties use nomination methods that include voting by mail, decisions by local party committees, and widespread voting by party members in processes similar to primaries in the United States.
In other countries.
In Western Europe, candidates for national, regional, and local legislative seats are generally nominated by their parties through decisions by local party committees that are ultimately approved by national party officials. This process is used by the major parties of France, the United Kingdom, and, to a lesser extent, Germany. Party organizations and nominating rules and processes within the Social Democratic and Christian Democratic parties of Germany are more decentralized and diverse. For example, the Christian Social Union (CSU) is based in the German state of Bavaria and is legally and organizationally separate from the Christian Democratic Union (CDU). In federal elections, the parties unite as the CDU/CSU, but the CSU has its own nomination rules and processes.
Organizing the government
is a major function of political parties. But how the parties do this depends on the government’s established structure and on how the powers of government are divided. There are two main types of structure, the unitary system and the federal system. There are also two main systems of dividing government, the presidential system and the parliamentary system.
Unitary and federal systems.
In countries that have a unitary system of government, such as France, Italy, and the United Kingdom, the central government has most governmental powers, including control over local governments. In countries that have a federal system of government—such as Australia, Canada, India, Mexico, and the United States—the powers of government are divided between the central government and the state or provincial governments (see Government (Forms of government). The political parties in countries with a unitary system concentrate on gaining control of and organizing the central government. The parties are thus basically national in their activities and are so organized. The political parties in countries with a federal system try to gain power to organize both the central government and the state or provincial governments. The parties are thus both national and state in their activities and organization. See Government (The federal system); Government (The unitary system).
The presidential system.
Countries with presidential democracies include Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, the Philippines, and the United States. See Government (Presidential democracy); President.
In the United States, the Constitution provides for the separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president, therefore, is not a member of Congress, nor are the Cabinet members. The president is elected by the people through the Electoral College and may be of a different political party than the party that controls Congress. Often, the president is forced to rely on leaders from both parties to get programs passed. Under the presidential system, Congress may refuse to pass legislation the president wants. On the other hand, the president may veto (reject) legislation passed by Congress—and Congress seldom overrides a veto.
The president serves a four-year term. The president must work with a House of Representatives whose total membership is elected every two years and with a Senate in which a third of the members face election every two years. These staggered elections make for shifting alliances and may increase or decrease support for the president’s policies. The bicameral division of Congress into two independent bodies—the House of Representatives and the Senate—also complicates the president’s role. Traditionally, each body guards its powers against executive interference.
The Democratic and Republican parties organize their members in Congress according to the established structure of the House of Representatives and the Senate. At the beginning of each new session of Congress, both parties in the House and the Senate hold meetings to elect various officers and committee members. In the House, each party nominates a candidate for speaker, the body’s presiding officer. But most representatives vote for their party’s candidate, and so the majority party actually chooses the speaker. In the Senate, the vice president of the United States presides. The majority party elects a president pro tempore (temporary) to preside in the absence of the vice president.
Each party in the House and Senate also elects a floor leader and a whip. The floor leaders direct their party’s activities during debates on proposed legislation. The whips help the floor leaders by letting them know how party members feel about bills coming up for vote. The whips—with the help of assistant whips—also try to assure as much party discipline as possible by persuading members to vote along party lines.
The majority party in each house has the most seats on House and Senate committees. In addition, the committee heads belong to the majority party. Congressional committees and subcommittees have great influence in speeding or slowing the passage of legislation. They are often called “little legislatures.”
The parliamentary system.
In such parliamentary democracies as Australia, Canada, and most democratic countries of Africa, Asia, and Europe, the head of the government—the prime minister—faces fewer problems in organizing the government. In the United Kingdom, for example, the prime minister must be a member of Parliament and usually also is leader of the majority party in the House of Commons. The prime minister usually chooses a Cabinet from leaders of the majority party who are members of Parliament.
In the United Kingdom, the prime minister and Cabinet thus have both executive and legislative authority. They are members of the legislature and responsible to it. If the prime minister’s program fails to win parliamentary support, the opposition party may demand an election. This election is called for by the government but must occur within five years of the previous election. The people will vote either to keep the present government in power or to give the opposition party the opportunity to form a new government.
Parliamentary republics that have two major parties, such as Spain and the United Kingdom, often find it easier to create governments following legislative elections than parliamentary republics that have multiparty systems, such as Italy and the Netherlands. Following national legislative elections in countries that have multiparty systems, the most electorally successful major party often needs to form a coalition with other parties in order to form a government. In the United Kingdom, one of the two major parties is often able to win a majority of seats in Parliament and establish a government in the executive branch. See Government (Parliamentary democracy).
Providing opposition.
In a democratic nation, the party or parties out of power have the duty of criticizing the policies of the party in power and offering alternative programs. In the United Kingdom, for example, the leading members of the main opposition party are referred to as the shadow cabinet. Generally, each member of the shadow cabinet acts as a spokesperson for an area of policy that roughly corresponds to a government department in the real Cabinet. In France, Italy, and other countries that have many parties, the opposition parties may represent various points of view, from those favoring a monarchy to those preferring Communism.
In most two-party nations, the party out of power usually provides unified opposition, but this is not always true. In the U.S. Congress, for example, some members of the party that does not control the presidency may support the president’s program against the wishes of their party leaders.
Raising funds
for election campaigns is an important activity of political parties in democratic nations. Campaigns are expensive, but parties must wage them to win elections. Most campaign expenditures are for television and radio advertising, campaign consultants, polls, printing charges, telephone bills, campaign buttons, posters, and salaries.
United States parties spend much more money on election campaigns than do parties in other nations. This is true in part because most U.S. campaigns last longer and employ more television and other costly means of communication than parties in other nations do. It can cost millions of dollars to finance a campaign for a U.S. Senate seat in a large state, and many millions more to finance a presidential campaign. Nominating and electing all U.S. public officials in a presidential-election year costs billions of dollars. Some campaign funds come from the small contributions of thousands of party members and supporters. But most of the money comes from large donations by wealthy people and interest groups called political action committees (PAC’s).
In the United States, several federal and state laws regulate campaign spending and contributions. However, the laws have been difficult to enforce. They have also been generally ineffective in controlling expenditures because so many groups are involved in waging campaigns and raising funds. Campaign finance methods are strongly influenced by the U.S. Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002, also known as the McCain-Feingold Act. In 2014, the court eliminated limits on the total amount people could donate to various political campaigns in a single election season. See Election campaign; Federal Election Commission; Hatch Political Activities Act.
Other functions.
In democracies, each party uses newspapers, radio, television, the internet, and other means to tell the people about its program. In so doing, a party hopes to win—or stay in—office. The party in power tries to justify its program. The minority party, on the other hand, points out what it considers weaknesses in the majority party’s program and offers voters an alternative one. In publicizing their views, political parties thus help keep the voters informed on important issues.
Political parties also simplify complicated issues for the voters by reducing the issues to choices between candidates for office. In addition, in order to win votes, political candidates look for problems that have not received public attention and that affect many people. In this way, political parties help force the government to act on neglected problems.
Party systems
The number of political parties that win a significant share of votes in major elections determines the kind of party system that a country has. A country may thus have a one-party, two-party, or multiparty system.
One-party systems
are often associated with dictatorships. Most dictatorships allow only one party—the party that controls the government. Some dictatorships permit other parties, but only as long as they create no threat to the government.
In China, for example, the Communist Party forms the government. No other party may exist. Party membership is considered a privilege and is granted only after a person meets certain standards. Only about 5 percent of Chinese people belong to the party. The party performs many more functions than political parties in democracies do. For this reason, it has an elaborate organizational structure for recruiting members and leaders, developing policy, indoctrinating people, and maintaining discipline (see China (The Communist Party); Communism (Communism in practice)). Other countries that have Communist one-party systems include Cuba, Laos, and North Korea (see Cuba (Government); Laos (Government); Korea, North (Government)).
Most one-party dictatorships have elections. The elections are held chiefly to generate enthusiasm for the party. In North Korea, for example, the candidates of the Communist Party emphasize the strengths of Communism to the nation’s people. Party leaders explain what the party has done, what it plans to do, and what it expects of the people.
Two-party systems
are those in which two major parties dominate nearly all levels of government. Such systems are more common in English-speaking nations. Two-party countries include Canada, with its Conservative and Liberal parties; New Zealand, with its National and Labour parties; the United Kingdom, with its Conservative and Labour parties; and the United States, with its Democratic and Republican parties. Australia has three main parties—the Australian Labor Party (ALP), the Liberal Party of Australia, and the Nationals. However, in Parliament, the Liberal Party and the Nationals often form a coalition in opposition to the ALP. Thus, the system in Australia tends to operate on a two-party basis. Although these nations also have other parties, one of the two major parties in each country usually controls the government.
Although a nation may have a two-party system, one party may control politics in certain areas of the country. The party has this control because most voters in such areas always vote for its candidates. In the United Kingdom, for example, certain constituencies (voting districts) always support the Conservative Party. Some of the country’s other constituencies always support the Labour Party. In national elections, each party considers certain constituencies “safe.” If party leaders want to be sure that a candidate will win a seat in Parliament, they have the candidate run in a safe constituency. In the United Kingdom, candidates for national office do not have to live in the constituency they wish to represent.
In many states of the United States, both the Democratic Party and the Republican Party have considerable strength. In other states, one of those two parties has traditionally controlled politics. From the American Civil War (1861-1865) until the 1960’s, for example, Democrats strongly controlled most of the Southern States. During that same period, the Republicans controlled—though less strongly—some of the New England and Midwestern States. Since the 1960’s, however, the Republicans have won increasing support in the South, and the Democrats have made gains in New England.
Large industrial and commercial cities in the United States, such as Chicago and New York City, generally vote for the Democratic Party. Rural areas, on the other hand, usually support candidates from the Republican Party.
Multiparty systems
are found in many nations that have parliaments. Such countries include Belgium, Denmark, France, India, Italy, Japan, Norway, South Africa, and Sri Lanka. Some presidential republics—such as Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, the Philippines, and South Korea —also have multiparty systems.
Most multiparty nations have four or five major parties. In addition, a nation may also have many minor parties. In most cases, each party seeks a particular economic or social goal. Multiparty systems vary from country to country. But most systems consist of one or two left-wing parties, which hold liberal or radical views; one or two center parties, which have moderate views; and one or two right-wing parties, which support conservative views.
In multiparty nations, one party rarely wins enough seats in the legislature to form a government. Consequently, two or more parties join forces and form a coalition government to direct the nation’s affairs. But often, the coalition parties fail to agree on policies and programs, and so the government falls. The multiparty system thus tends to produce a less stable government than does the two-party system.
Party membership
Political parties in many nations have no strict requirements for membership. People are considered members of the party to which they consider themselves to belong. In addition, people may vote for a candidate who represents a particular party in national elections yet vote for a candidate who represents another party in local elections. Such ticket-splitting is much more common in the United States than in other major countries.
In the United States, neither the Republican Party nor the Democratic Party maintains accurate membership lists. Some of the best evidence regarding party affiliation comes from voting surveys and public opinion polls. Such surveys and polls show that, generally, the majority of American voters who identify with a political party consider themselves Democrats.
Party organization in the United States
The Democratic and Republican parties are complicated organizations. Both parties are organized at the national, state, and local level. At each level, each party has three basic units. These units are the mass meeting, the committee, and specific leaders. The relationship between the three units varies at the three levels of government. It also varies from one state or community to another.
National conventions and committees.
In theory, the national convention of each major political party has final authority in party matters. Actually, however, the convention has little power. Each party’s national convention meets only once every four years, when it nominates the party’s candidates for president and vice president. The national convention also formally elects the national committee, which acts for the party between conventions. In reality, each state party chooses its representatives on the committee.
The national committee of both major parties consists of party representatives from the states, the District of Columbia, and the territories. The Republicans elect a committeeman and committeewoman from each area, and include each area’s party chairperson. The Democrats have a much larger committee. Its representatives are apportioned by a complicated formula that is designed to include many special groups and to reflect party strength. Men and women must be equally represented on the committee.
Both the Democratic and Republican national committees have their headquarters in Washington, D.C. They meet only one to three times a year. One of the main tasks of each committee is to organize its party’s next national convention. It chooses the city where the convention will meet and makes arrangements for a smoothly run convention. But most of the work of the party’s national organization is done by the committee’s national chairperson and staff.
Each party’s presidential candidate selects the national chairperson at the end of the national convention. The national committee then formally elects that person. The chairperson acts for the national committee in managing party affairs. During presidential elections, the chairperson directs the party’s fund-raising and other activities in the national campaign. He or she may assist the president in patronage (political jobs) matters by recommending appointees for federal jobs.
The national chairperson also organizes the party’s national headquarters and is the chief decision maker within the national organization. But the headquarters has a sizeable staff that does the detailed work. It has campaign, fund-raising, public relations, and research divisions.
State committees.
Both the Democratic and Republican parties have a state committee in each state. In most states, the committee members are chosen in party primaries or at conventions. The state committees organize and manage campaigns for state offices and assist in local campaigns. They also raise money, make arrangements for primary elections, and organize the state conventions.
The leader of the state committee is the official head of the state party. The committee formally elects the leader. But the governor, a U.S. senator from the state, or a group of powerful local officials actually select the leader. In most states, these officials are also powerful enough to lead the party and control the state committee. In some states, however, the committee leader effectively directs the party and controls or even chooses key state party officers.
Local organizations.
Each of the two major parties has a county committee in most counties of the United States. Committee members are chosen by county conventions or in primaries. The county committee elects the county leader, who maintains communication with the state party organization and, in most states, is a delegate to the state committee. Some county leaders retain patronage power, which they use to sway the votes of delegates at state and national conventions.
Below the county committees are the city, ward, and precinct organizations, whose leaders have the closest contact with voters. City and ward committeemen and committeewomen are selected in local conventions or primaries. In some states, precinct committeemen and committeewomen or captains are also chosen in primaries. In others, the county committee selects them.
The United States has tens of thousands of election precincts. In most of them, either one or both major parties have a precinct captain, committeeman, or committeewoman. This official prepares the party poll book, which lists the names of the voters in the precinct and which party—if any—they belong to. Precinct captains and their assistants try to make sure that all members of their party are registered to vote. They may also provide transportation to polling places for voters who need it on election day.
In the past, precinct captains or committeemen and committeewomen frequently won votes by assisting voters and would-be voters. For example, they helped immigrants become citizens, bailed out prisoners under arrest, found jobs for unemployed persons, and sometimes gave out charity. But in many cities, local party leaders and bosses have lost the great influence they once had. Government welfare programs and rapid economic growth made many voters less dependent on their help.
Development of parties in the United States
Early history.
American leaders met in Philadelphia in 1787 to draw up the Constitution. This document makes no mention of political parties. In fact, George Washington, who presided over the Constitutional Convention, and many other early political leaders opposed their development. Nevertheless, common economic, political, and social interests brought people together to form political organizations. A group called the Federalists supported strong national government. Their opponents were called the Anti-Federalists. These political organizations began to take shape before Washington became president in 1789. Soon after, the two groups developed into the first American political parties, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party. The Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, wanted a strong central government. The Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, supported a weak central government.
After the 1816 presidential election, the Federalist Party broke up as a national organization, and the Democratic-Republican Party split into several groups. One of the Democratic-Republican groups came under the leadership of Andrew Jackson. By about 1830, Jackson and his followers were known as Democrats.
The Democratic Party
is the oldest existing political party in the United States. Some historians believe it began in the 1790’s as Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican Party. Most historians trace its origin to the campaign organization that formed after the 1824 presidential election to win the presidency for Jackson in 1828.
From 1828 to 1860, the Democratic Party won all but two presidential elections—those of 1840 and 1848—even though its members often disagreed on several issues. They fought, for example, over banking policies, slavery, and tariff rates. Democrats also met bitter opposition from outside the party. About 1832, several groups that opposed Jackson combined to form the Whig Party. But the Whigs never united sufficiently to propose a program with as much popular appeal as that of the Democrats.
During the 1850’s, the Democrats split over whether to oppose or support the extension of slavery. In 1860, the party even had two nominees for president— John C. Breckinridge and Stephen A. Douglas. Both lost to the Republican candidate, Abraham Lincoln.
From 1860 to 1932, only two Democrats won the presidency— Grover Cleveland in 1884 and 1892 and Woodrow Wilson in 1912 and 1916. The Republican Party had gained so much strength during the Civil War that the Democrats had great difficulty winning control of the government. In addition, the Republicans repeatedly charged the Democrats with having caused the war and having been disloyal to the Union.
The situation changed after 1929. Just as the Republicans had blamed the Democrats for the Civil War, so the Democrats blamed the Republicans for the stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression of the 1930’s. The Great Depression was a worldwide economic slump. The Democrats won the presidency in 1932 and continued to win every election from 1932 through 1948.
In the last half of the 1900’s, however, neither the Democrats nor the Republicans dominated the presidential elections to any great extent. The Democrats won 5 out of the 12 elections during that period—in 1960, 1964, 1976, 1992, and 1996. In the 2000’s, the Democrats lost in 2000, 2004, and 2016. The Democratic candidate won in 2008, 2012, and 2020.
The Republican Party
started as a series of antislavery political meetings in the Midwest in 1854. At that time, the Whig Party was breaking up. Many Whigs—as well as Northern Democrats—opposed the extension of slavery. The Republican Party represented this viewpoint and thus gained followers rapidly. The party’s first presidential candidate, John C. Frémont, ran unsuccessfully in 1856, but he carried 11 Northern states.
From 1860, when Abraham Lincoln was elected, through 1928, when Herbert Hoover was elected, the Republican Party won 14 of the nation’s 18 presidential elections. The policies of the Republican Party appealed to many groups, including farmers, industrialists, and merchants.
In 1912, President William Howard Taft was the leader of a divided Republican Party. Progressive Republicans wanted Theodore Roosevelt, who had been president from 1901 to 1909, to run again. But conservative Republicans renominated Taft at the party’s 1912 national convention. Roosevelt then withdrew from the party and formed the Progressive, or “Bull Moose,” Party. This split helped the Democratic candidate, Woodrow Wilson, win the election. The Republicans lost to Wilson again in 1916. They regained the presidency in 1920, and won in 1924 and 1928. But their popularity declined after the stock market crash of 1929.
During World War II (1939-1945), the Republicans began to show signs of recovery. In 1952, World War II military leader Dwight D. Eisenhower brought the Republicans their first presidential victory in 24 years. Eisenhower won reelection in 1956.
The Republicans lost to the Democrats in the 1960 and 1964 presidential elections but regained the presidency in 1968 and held it in 1972. They lost to the Democrats in 1976, but then were victorious in the next three elections—1980, 1984, and 1988. They were defeated in 1992 and 1996. In 2000, 2004, and 2016, the Republican candidate was the winner. Republican presidential candidates lost in 2008, 2012, and 2020.
Third parties.
There have been many third parties in the United States. None of them ever won the presidency. But many of their proposals gained such widespread public support that the two major parties were forced to adopt them. These proposals included the convention system of nominating presidential candidates and the direct election of U.S. senators. Before that, U.S. senators were chosen by each state’s legislature.
Third parties in the United States can be divided into five types, according to their origins and goals. The first type consists of groups that broke away from the two major parties. For example, the Liberal Republicans in 1872 and the Roosevelt Progressives in 1912 broke away from the Republican Party. Third parties that were formed by groups leaving the Democratic Party include the Gold Democrats, who left the party in 1896; the Dixiecrats, who left in 1948; and the American Independent Party, which split from the Democratic Party in 1968.
The second type of third party consists of organizations formed chiefly to help a specific group of people. For example, debt-ridden farmers established the Greenback Party in the 1870’s and formed the Populist Party in the 1890’s.
The third type is made up of left-wing protest groups. They include the Socialist Party, which was founded in 1901, and the American Communist Party, which was organized in 1919.
The fourth type consists of parties that have only one goal. These single-issue parties include the nation’s oldest existing third party—the Prohibition Party, which was founded in 1869. The Prohibition Party seeks to prevent the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages in the United States.
The fifth type of third party consists of groups that have broad programs and attempt to gain national favor. Examples of this type of third party include the Progressive parties of 1924, 1948, and 1952; the Libertarian Party, which was founded in 1971; the Reform Party, established in 1995; and the Green Party of the United States, which began as the Association of State Green Parties in 1996. The Libertarian Party combines liberal views on personal freedoms with conservative economic beliefs, and the Green Party primarily promotes environmental issues. The Constitution Party is another example of this fifth type. Founded as the U.S. Taxpayers Party in 1992, it advocates principles and policies that are influenced by its belief in a strict interpretation of the U.S. Constitution.
The Natural Law Party was a unique third party that cannot be easily categorized as one of these five types. It nominated presidential candidates in 1992, 1996, and 2000. The Natural Law Party believed that political problems could be solved in the United States by achieving order, harmony, and justice through transcendental meditation (a method of relaxing the body).
Recent trends in political parties worldwide
In the United States.
From 1940 to 1990, the percentage of Americans who identified themselves as politically independent increased. By the 2010’s, more Americans identified themselves as independents than as Democrats or Republicans. The decline in party identification correlated to significant changes in attitude among American voters. These included high levels of distrust in government, especially Congress, and a greater tendency to perceive both major parties negatively.
The increase in the percentage of independent voters and their more frequent changes in partisan (one-sided) preferences have contributed to abrupt changes in Democratic and Republican control of Congress as well. For example, Democrats made major gains in the congressional elections of 2006, 2008, and 2018. Republicans made significant gains in the congressional elections of 1994, 2010, and 2014.
In 2009, the tea party movement, a loose collection of conservative political activist groups, gained national attention in the United States. These groups initially gathered to oppose the economic policies of President Barack Obama. Most tea party members called for reducing the size of the federal government. Many “tea partiers” also took conservative positions on such issues as gun rights and immigration. Republican Donald J. Trump criticized many of his party’s leaders during his successful presidential run in 2016. Trump’s emphasis on “America first” pulled his party toward right-wing, nationalist stances on such issues as immigration and international trade.
In other countries.
Various kinds of changes have occurred among political parties in other countries as well. In the 1980’s the Green party movement began to gather momentum worldwide. Green parties are most commonly known for promoting environmental issues. Other issues advanced by Green parties include the rights of women and opposition to capitalism, modernism, the building of nuclear power plants, and the testing and production of nuclear weapons. Modernists traditionally favor such Western advances as industrialization and urbanization. Germany and other Western European nations have some of the strongest Green parties. In 1983, before West Germany and East Germany united, West Germany’s Green Party became the first Green party in Europe to win seats in a national legislature. Green parties operate primarily in industrialized countries. Countries with Green parties include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Ireland, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, and the United States.
In Europe.
Since the 1990’s, a growing number of right-wing political parties have developed throughout the world, especially in Europe. Their development has been influenced by several factors, including globalization and multiculturalism. Globalization is the trend toward increased business, cultural, and governmental interaction across international borders. Multiculturalism is a policy that supports all cultures and ethnic backgrounds within a particular society or nation. Such issues as immigration, economic stagnation, and the power of the European Union (EU) have also influenced the rise of right-wing political parties. The EU is an economic and political partnership among 27 European countries. See Immigration (Europe).
The United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) emphasized its opposition to policies by the EU and the British government that, it believed, weakened the United Kingdom’s national sovereignty and individual liberty. The British National Party (BNP) was also critical of the EU. The BNP opposed multiculturalism and further immigration, especially from Islamic countries. Both UKIP and the BNP took credit for the British vote, in a contentious 2016 referendum, to leave the EU. The referendum was nicknamed “Brexit,” for British exit. The Brexit Party, which became active in 2019 and later changed its name to Reform UK, gained considerable support from former UKIP voters. The United Kingdom remained part of the European Union until the formal withdrawal process was completed on Jan. 31, 2020.
The National Rally (formerly National Front) in France is similar to the BNP. The National Rally supports nationalism; tough policies to fight crime; and a strengthening of French patriotism, traditions, and values, including the practice of Roman Catholicism. The party opposes further immigration to France, especially among Muslims from Africa and the Middle East. International organizations have at times attempted to unite such like-minded European parties. Other right-wing parties include Fidesz in Hungary, the Brothers of Italy, and the Freedom Party of Austria.
A unique international party movement of the early 2000’s has been the pirate party movement. In general, pirate parties want to change national and international laws that affect the internet. They work to make it easier to share information and knowledge over the internet by reforming copyright and patent laws. The first pirate party, Piratpartiet, was founded in Sweden in 2006. Pirate parties have since been established in many countries, including Brazil, the Czech Republic, Germany, India, Russia, and the United States. Pirate Parties International (PPI), with headquarters in Belgium, is an international organization of pirate parties.
In Australia and Canada,
current political trends indicate that these countries will continue to have two major parties with a growing number and variety of larger minor parties. For example, in 2013, the NDP of Canada won more seats in the lower house of the national legislature than either of the two major parties. In 2013, a coalition of Australia’s Liberal and National parties formed a government with members of several smaller parties and chose a Liberal Party prime minister. Furthermore, Australian political parties increasingly use American methods of campaign advertising and American-style primaries, especially within the ALP.
