Political science is the systematic study of political life. Political scientists seek answers to such questions as “What reasons justify the actions of government?” and “Whose interests are served by governments?” They study various forms of government as well as political parties, pressure groups, elections, international relations, and public administration. All these are activities of individuals and groups and involve basic human relationships. Political science deals with such fundamental values as equality, freedom, justice, and power.
Political science is closely related to economics, history, law, philosophy, and sociology. Economics deals with the control of all material resources, including goods and services, which affects the political power structure within a nation and among groups of nations. History provides much of the raw material with which the political scientist works. Law, especially public law, supplies a framework of formal ideas for the political scientist. Philosophy relates political science to the other sciences. Sociology provides understanding of the social developments that affect political life.
The study of political science has increased greatly with the growth and spread of democracy during modern times. In every democratic country, political science is essential in the processes of government. The political scientist studies these processes and the operations of government agencies and departments. The work of political scientists provides a factual basis for criticism and reform—probably the most important elements of democratic government. Many political scientists participate in government programs as advisers. They also act as consultants to legislators and other public officials. In addition, political scientists develop useful materials for the education of young people. Without that kind of training for future citizens, a democratic society could not prosper.
Fields of political science
Political science is often divided into six main fields: (1) political theory and philosophy, (2) comparative government, (3) international relations, (4) national government and politics, (5) public administration, and (6) political behavior.
Political theory and philosophy
are usually dealt with historically. Most political scientists believe that the history of political thought forms the basis of all political studies. They consider the reading of great books on political theory and philosophy to be essential for a broad education in politics. The writers of these works include Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Karl Marx.
The classic political and philosophical works help political scientists explore and understand many issues of empirical politics (politics based on experience). With this understanding, political scientists can establish generalizations based on verified facts. These generalizations concern such subjects as how power is won or lost and the problems of representative government.
Comparative government.
An understanding of political reality may be achieved by comparing the political institutions and practices of two or more countries. Some scholars in comparative government specialize by studying the countries of a particular area of the world.
International relations
include diplomacy, international law, and international organization. Since 1945, much emphasis has been placed on the study of the United Nations. Vital forces in the modern world, including imperialism and nationalism, are also important subjects of international relations. In addition, this field of political science deals with defense policies and with problems connected with peace and war. The effects of economic pressures on international relations are studied as well.
National government and politics.
Political scientists generally give special attention to their own country’s government. For instance, many political scientists in the United States specialize in the field of American government and politics. Similarly, Canadian and British government and politics are important fields of study in Canada and the United Kingdom, respectively.
Political scientists in various countries study the many levels, branches, and departments of government. They also study government agencies, large corporations, interest groups, the mass media, and other centers of economic and social power. Political scientists have gained important insight into how these groups influence government decision making.
Public administration
is actually part of comparative government and of national government and politics. It is separated from those fields because of the range and complications of modern administrative activities. Public administration deals with such tasks of public officials as accounting, budgets, and personnel management. Public officials often work closely with political scientists who are experts in administration. These experts study the departments of the federal, state, and local governments. They analyze how the organization and internal politics of these departments aid or hinder putting political decisions and programs into effect.
Political behavior
is the field that explores the way people respond to certain political conditions or influences. For example, the political scientist may take note of how many voters favor a candidate who looks good on television. Behavioral studies are a recent trend in political science. They have been influenced by developments in such behavioral sciences as anthropology, psychology, and sociology. Political scientists have developed ways to study certain key behavior patterns in politics. Studies have been made in communications, propaganda, voting behavior, and other activities.
The development of political science
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle and his teacher, Plato, believed that the main task of political science was to work out a model political order. This political order would establish maximum justice and, at the same time, remain completely stable. Plato was primarily a philosopher of ideas. He derived his insight chiefly from abstract speculation (thinking about nonconcrete things). Aristotle, on the other hand, insisted on empirical studies (investigation based on experience) in constructing his political theories. See Aristotle ; Plato .
Scholasticism
was a major philosophical movement during the late Middle Ages. Its followers, often called scholastics, worked to fit the Greek tradition of political science into the religious framework of Christianity. Their main concern was to harmonize the power of government with ethics and moral laws.
The greatest scholastic was Saint Thomas Aquinas. He ranked all other political subjects below law. In one of his most important works, Summa Theologica, Aquinas elaborated Aristotle’s theories and adapted them to Christian purposes. Aquinas emphasized certain rights and duties of individuals in the processes of government. He also stressed that government should rule in accordance with those rights and duties. By stating that government was limited by law, Aquinas helped lay the foundation of modern constitutionalism. See Aquinas, Saint Thomas ; Scholasticism .
Secularism.
The theories of the medieval philosophers were challenged in the 1500’s and early 1600’s. Niccolo Machiavelli, a famous Florentine politician, pushed aside Christian idealism in favor of realistic power politics. Machiavelli’s ideas were generalized by Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher. In Hobbes’s view, a person’s entire life is a “ceaseless search for power.” This approach became known as secularism because it separated politics from religion. Three writers who put those ideas into legalistic form were Jean Bodin, a French jurist; Johannes Althusius, a German political scientist; and Hugo Grotius, a Dutch lawyer who founded the science of international law.
Constitutionalism
is a political system in which the powers of government are in fact limited by law or tradition. Constitutionalism developed during the mid-1600’s as a reaction to absolutism—that is, absolute rule by one person. The reaction was especially strong in England, where it was climaxed by the Glorious Revolution of 1688 (see England (The Restoration) ).
Several English writers influenced the basic theories of Western constitutionalism, including Richard Hooker, John Milton, and James Harrington. John Locke, perhaps the most influential political writer of the time, emphasized basic human rights and believed that people should revolt against governments that violated those rights. His book Two Treatises of Government (1690) greatly influenced political thought in the American colonies. Locke’s ideas helped shape the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.
Liberalism
developed as a political philosophy largely from the theories of Locke. Liberalism represents a willingness to change ideas, proposals, and policies to meet current problems. Locke’s theories were given a broader base by Montesquieu, one of a group of French writers called the philosophes. Liberal theories were reinforced by the radical individualism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the utilitarian theories of David Hume, a Scotsman, and Jeremy Bentham, an Englishman. Individualists believe that freedom of the individual is as important as the welfare of any community. Utilitarians believe that the goal of politics is “the greatest happiness of the greatest number.” John Stuart Mill, an English philosopher and economist, summarized most of the liberal ideas that had developed up to his time.
Three great German philosophers contributed liberal ideas that were somewhat different from classic liberalism. They were Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The liberalism of Fichte and Hegel included ideas of socialism and nationalism. Kant’s liberalism included a theory of universal peace through world organization. Kant explained his theory in On Eternal Peace (1795). See Liberalism .
Democracy and socialism.
Some of Rousseau’s writings carried his political theories beyond radical individualism. In The Social Contract (1762), Rousseau became the theorist of democracy. His emphasis on the collective—the general will, as Rousseau described it—gave rise to socialism. Eventually, the theories about democracy became divided. Liberal, constitutional, democratic ideas were followed in the United States. Socialist democratic ideas became predominant in Europe.
Socialism was further developed by Karl Marx, a German philosopher and economist. He first expressed his socialist ideas in the Communist Manifesto (1848), which he wrote with his colleague Friedrich Engels. Communism in the Soviet Union was based on Marxist doctrines as interpreted and modified by V. I. Lenin, who led the Russian Revolution in 1917. Marxism-Leninism differs greatly from the Marxist doctrines followed by democratic socialists in many countries of Western Europe. See Communism ; Democracy ; Socialism .
Contemporary ideas.
Since about 1900, most political scientists have sought increasingly to strengthen the empirical basis of their work. They have been returning to Aristotle’s view of basing political theories and methods on experience. As a result, much progress has been made in descriptive and analytical work, and in quantitative studies (studies that collect data in numerical form), such as opinion polls. Today, political scientists make practical improvement and political reform their major concerns.
Many current political studies consider most nations of the world. Such global interests find expression in the International Political Science Association. About 40 national political science associations work together in this organization.
