Punctuation is the use of certain marks in writing and printing to make the writer’s meaning clear. The marks are also called punctuation.
Early writing and early printing had marks to show punctuation. But the signs were used according to the wish of the writer and to the marks that the printers had in their typecases. The ancient Greeks, for example, often used a semicolon in place of our modern question mark. Printing and punctuation improved rapidly during the 1400’s and 1500’s, especially in Italy. During this period, Aldus Manutius, an Italian printer and bookmaker, began to use the various marks more systematically. His work formed the basis of the punctuation used today in many written language systems.
Punctuation marks were used more frequently some years ago. Today, the trend is to use fewer and fewer marks, and in many places to use none at all. Writers today are less bound by the old rules.
The period
(.) is used at the end of a statement or command and after most abbreviations. A period follows the sentence you have just read. The period is also called the full stop. In American usage, if there are quotation marks at the end of a sentence, the period is placed inside these marks. In British and Australian usage, the period is placed outside the marks. Roman numerals (clxvi, CXXVI) are not followed by periods. Periods are not placed after page numbers in books, but they are placed after numbers in an outline or list. There are no periods after call letters for radio stations, some government bureaus, and some signals sent by code letters, such as WCFL, FBI, and S O S.
The question mark
(?) is used after a question. It is also called the interrogation mark or point. Every direct question should be followed by a question mark, as Do you understand this rule? An indirect question does not end in a question mark. It is followed by a period, as Inspector Adams wondered who did it.
The exclamation point
(!) is used after a sentence that expresses strong feeling. How cold it is! Single words, phrases, or clauses of the same sort are followed by the exclamation point. Listen! You, over there! Trying to hide! There are few occasions for using an exclamation point, except in reporting speech. See Exclamation point.
Quotation marks
(“”) enclose the exact words of a speaker. They are sometimes called double quotation marks, or double quotes. They enclose only the spoken words, as in “I’m going to telephone Martha,” said Bill, and “Do you think,” Mother asked, “that she has come back from the shore?”
Quotation marks are used when material is taken word-for-word from another source. For example, an author uses quotation marks to set off text that originated with another author. When several paragraphs are quoted, quotation marks are placed at the beginning of every paragraph and at the end of the last quoted paragraph. Quotations within quotations are enclosed in single quotation marks, as in “He answered, ‘I will not,’ when I asked him,” she reported.
Quotation marks may enclose titles of short written works, such as poems, lectures, sermons, and short stories. Quotation marks also call attention to unusual uses of words, such as a famous “first,” and to identify nicknames, as in Eric was called “The Red” because he had red hair.
The colon
(:) has two uses. It is most frequently used after the salutation in a business letter, as Dear Mrs. Miller:, Gentlemen:, My dear Doctor:, Dear Sir:. The other use is after such expressions as to the following:, as follows:. Often the colon in this use is followed by a list. The world’s three largest countries in area are as follows: Russia, Canada, China. See Colon.
The semicolon
(;) is used in a compound sentence between two principal clauses that are not joined by a conjunction. He struggled to land the bass; it flipped its tail as it vanished. If principal clauses of a compound sentence contain commas, a semicolon is placed between the clauses even if the conjunction is used. We rounded the corner yelling, swaying, and grinding; but having used the brakes too late, we skidded against the opposite wall. The semicolon is also used instead of the comma after items in a series when these items are long or complicated.
The dash
(—) is used to mark a sudden break in thought. I considered her—it was a foolish opinion—too young to take care of herself. Use dashes to set off emphatically any definition or enumeration in a sentence: The work of two great English historians—Edward Gibbon and Thomas B. Macaulay—influenced him the most.
Parentheses
( ) enclose parts of the sentence which might easily have been omitted. The material between them is not connected grammatically with the rest of the sentence. I explained to you (you don’t remember when) why I cannot take a long trip. One mark is called a parenthesis. The entire group of words enclosed by the marks is also called a parenthesis. See Parenthesis.
Brackets
[ ] in quoted remarks enclose explanations not in the actual speech. I am a simple man. [Laughter]. Directions in plays may be enclosed in parentheses or in brackets. But I need money. [He turns away.]
The comma
(,) is the most commonly used mark. It has more uses than any other mark of punctuation. Most of the principal ones are set down here.
It follows the words, phrases, or clauses in a series. We ate crabs, lobster, shrimp, and fish.
It follows items in addresses and dates. He was born at 611 East Minnesota Street, Indianapolis, Indiana, on November 24, 1911.
It is placed around certain conjunctions, adverbs, and phrases, such as now, however, for instance, when it indicates a break in the construction. Try, for instance, to borrow money without giving security.
It is used after words, phrases, and clauses at the beginning of sentences unless there is a close connection. If you perform that experiment again, I shall help you.
It is used between the principal clauses of a compound sentence unless the sentence is short. We stood terrified by the swollen stream, but one of us discovered a safe bridge along a huge fallen tree.
It separates nonrestrictive subordinate clauses from the rest of the sentence. The listening lad, who had been intently silent, suddenly let out a bloodcurdling yell.
It sets off a word or phrase that explains some term. The second term is said to be an appositive of the first. Radar, an electronic device, is of value in warfare.
It sets off words like well, yes, no, and all nouns of address. Yes, we saw the eclipse. Mr. Emerson, may I speak with Jane?
It sets off quotations, especially in conversation. “May I,” he began shyly, “have the next dance?” “Surely,” she answered.
It is often used to avoid misunderstanding. Some weeks before she arrived from Canada is not clear. Some weeks before, she arrived from Canada is clear.
The hyphen
(-) is most commonly used to link compound words, such as twenty-three, Anglo-American, and forget-me-not. It is also used at the end of a line when a word is broken into syllables and part of the word is put on the next line, as in atti-tude, di-vision.
The apostrophe
(‘) is used in the place of omitted letters in contractions, as in can’t, she’ll, they’re. It also substitutes for omitted letters in words used in poetry, as in th’, ev’ry, and ’tis. The apostrophe is also used to show the possessive case, as in the student’s book, the birds’ song, the children’s room.
