Quebec

Quebec << kwih BEHK, or in French, kay BEHK >> is the largest province of Canada in area. It also has more people than any other province except Ontario. Most of Quebec’s people have French ancestors, and many of the people in this group speak only French. Montreal is the largest city in Quebec. The capital of the province is also named Quebec, but it is often called Quebec City.

The strong French influence makes Quebec quite different from the rest of Canada. For example, about half of the people are Roman Catholic. Many Quebec schools teach the Roman Catholic religion, and most schools teach students in French. The province’s older buildings are French in architecture. Beautiful French-style homes can still be seen in the countryside. Almost every village has a Catholic church, and crosses and shrines stand by the roadsides. Nevertheless, Quebec also has churches and temples of many other denominations and religions. Although the majority of people speak French, the government provides its services in both French and English.

The early French settlers in the Quebec region were interested chiefly in the fur trade. Rapid economic growth during the late 1800’s and 1900’s placed Quebec among the great industrial regions of North America. Factories and mills use the power provided by hydroelectric plants on Quebec’s many rivers. Quebec is a leading producer of hydroelectric power in North America.

Quebec produces about 25 percent of all the goods manufactured in Canada. The Montreal area ranks second to the Toronto area among Canada’s leading manufacturing centers. Important products manufactured in Quebec include processed foods, aircraft, and chemicals. The province is one of Canada’s leading producers of paper . Quebec ranks first among the Canadian provinces in the production of aluminum .

The province’s vast natural resources provide its industries with huge supplies of valuable raw materials. The far northern wilderness of Quebec has vast deposits of iron ore, one of the province’s leading mineral products. Quebec also is a leading producer of gold, silver, titanium, and zinc. Forests cover about half of the province. They provide balsam firs, spruces, and other trees for Quebec’s great paper industry.

The Saint Lawrence River Valley and the rolling Eastern Townships, south of the river, have rich soils. Quebec ranks among North America’s leading producers of dairy cattle, hogs, and milk, and leads in the production of maple syrup.

Quebec’s great St. Lawrence River is one of the most important waterways in North America. The word Quebec came from the Algonquian word kebec, meaning the place where the river narrows. Originally, it described only the place where the St. Lawrence River narrowed and where the French explorer Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec City in 1608. It was the first permanent European settlement in Canada. The British used the name Quebec to describe a larger area after they defeated the French and confirmed possession of the French North American colonies in the 1763 Treaty of Paris .

People

Population.

The 2021 Canadian census reported that Quebec had 8,501,833 people. The population of the province had risen about 4 percent over the 2016 figure of 8,164,361.

About 80 percent of the people of Quebec live in urban areas. About half live in the metropolitan area of Montreal. Quebec has six other Census Metropolitan Areas as defined by Statistics Canada. They are Drummondville, Ottawa-Gatineau (mostly in Ontario), Quebec (the capital and surrounding areas), Saguenay, Sherbrooke, and Trois-Rivières.

Montreal is by far the largest city in Quebec, and it is the second largest city in Canada. Only Toronto, Ontario, has a larger city population. Montreal also ranks second to Toronto in metropolitan area population. Montreal is one of the world’s largest French-speaking cities. Other large cities of Quebec include Gatineau, Laval, Longueuil, and Quebec City. For more information, see the articles on Quebec cities listed in the Related information feature that accompanies this article.

Most of Quebec’s people are French Canadians. Nearly all are descendants of the settlers who came to the Quebec region during the 1600’s and 1700’s, when Quebec was a French colony. Quebec came under British rule in 1763, but not many British settlers arrived until the early 1800’s. The British had a great deal of economic and political power. However, the French Canadians continued to follow their own ways of life.

People of British descent form a significant minority in Quebec. There are also about 141,000 First Nations people, 21,000 Métis (people with both First Nations and European ancestry), and 13,000 Inuit. First Nations, Métis, and Inuit are Indigenous (original) peoples of what is now Canada. French is the only tongue spoken by about half of the people of Quebec. It is the province’s official language. About half of the population speaks both French and English.

About 85 percent of Quebec’s population was born in Canada. In the early 2000’s, significant sources of ­immigrants have included Algeria, China, France, Haiti, India, Morocco, and the Philippines.

Quebec is home to members of all the world’s major religions. Christians form a religious majority, and about half of Quebec’s people are Roman Catholics. Many Jews and Muslims also live in Quebec. In addition, there are Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs. More than 25 percent of Quebecers claim no religious affiliation.

Schools.

During the 1600’s, Roman Catholic missionaries from France established the first schools in the Quebec region. The missionaries taught First Nations and white children. Priests and nuns provided the only formal schooling in Quebec for many years.

British colonists began arriving during the late 1700’s. They were mainly Protestants and wanted their own schools. In 1801, the colonial authorities set up a system of free, nondenominational schools. For the most part, the French Catholics opposed these schools. In 1829, the government began to subsidize Catholic parish and township schools. In 1846, the colony established a system of denominational schools run by Catholic and Protestant school boards.

Until 1964, a superintendent of education headed Quebec’s educational system. That year, the provincial government created the cabinet post of minister of education to oversee schools. It also created the independent Superior Council of Education, which advises the government in all educational matters.

In 1998, Quebec’s school system was reorganized on the basis of language. French, English, and First Nations school boards replaced Catholic and Protestant ones. However, students may still take classes on religion. Parents may send their children to private schools, some of which receive government funds. Private schools must follow the same basic regulations that public schools do. Children must attend school from the ages of 6 to 16.

Libraries.

Canada’s first library was established in Quebec City in the 1630’s. Université Laval (Laval University), McGill University, Université du Québec à Montréal (University of Quebec at Montreal), and Université de Montréal (University of Montreal) have outstanding libraries. The Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (National Library and Archives of Quebec), in Montreal, is a major provincial library. The Library of the National Assembly is in Quebec City.

Museums.

Quebec is home to hundreds of museums. The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts includes collections of Canadian paintings and decorative arts. The Château Ramezay Museum, built in 1705 for Governor Claude de Ramezay in Montreal, houses a fine historical museum. The Musée d’Art Contemporain de Montréal (Montreal Museum of Contemporary Art) exhibits works completed since 1939. The McCord Museum of Canadian History contains art, photographs, textiles, and other items that document the history of Canada and Quebec. The Musée National des Beaux-Arts du Québec (Quebec National Fine Arts Museum), in Quebec City, features works by Quebec artists since the 1600’s.

Exhibits at the Musée de la Civilisation (Museum of Civilization) in Quebec City concentrate on aspects of human civilization and culture. The Canadian Museum of History (Musée canadien de l’histoire) in Gatineau is one of Canada’s national museums. The Canadian Centre for Architecture in Montreal has a collection of books, drawings, photographs, prints, and architectural archives.

Visitor’s guide

Quebec attracts tens of millions of tourists annually, including many from the United States. Probably no other Canadian province is so rich in places of historical interest. Vacationers find the charm of Old France as they wander through the winding cobblestone streets of historic Quebec City. Every year, pilgrims visit the many religious shrines.

The rugged Gaspé Peninsula attracts artists, hikers, and mountain climbers. The Eastern Townships have lovely lakes, mountains, and rolling farmland. Many tourists take canoe trips down the rushing rivers of the Laurentian Mountains. Sports fans visit Montreal to see the Canadiens of the National Hockey League and the Alouettes of the Canadian Football League. In winter, thousands of skiers from all parts of Canada and the United States speed down Quebec’s fine ski trails. Cross-country skiing, hockey, ice skating, snowmobiling, and snowshoeing are also popular.

On June 24, French Canadians honor their patron saint, Saint Jean-Baptiste (Saint John the Baptist). The province observes this legal holiday, called La Fête Nationale du Québec (Quebec National Day), with lively festivities and art and music events. Major festivals that attract many tourists annually include the Festival International de Jazz de Montreal (Montreal International Jazz Festival); the Festival Juste pour rire (Just for Laughs Festival), a comedy festival in Montreal; the Carnaval de Québec (Quebec Winter Carnival), in Quebec City; and the Festival d’été de Québec (Quebec Summer Festival), a music festival in Quebec City.

Land and climate

Land regions.

Quebec has four main land regions: (1) the Canadian Shield, (2) the St. Lawrence Lowland, (3) the Appalachian Region, and (4) the Hudson Bay Lowland.

The Canadian Shield

is a vast, horseshoe-shaped region. It covers almost half of Canada and dips into the Northern United States. In Quebec, this rough, rocky plateau lies north of the St. Lawrence Lowland and Appalachian regions, and covers about nine-tenths of the province. It includes the North Shore, which extends along the St. Lawrence River from the Saguenay River to Labrador.

Through the ages, the Canadian Shield was scraped by glaciers, and much of its soil was worn away by wind and water. In many sections, the ancient rocks have no soil at all. Most of the region has remained a wilderness of forests, lakes, rivers, and streams. Treeless tundras with mosses and lichens cover the northern part of the Canadian Shield. The region has little land that can be farmed, but it has a variety of great mineral deposits.

Mont d’Iberville (called Mount Caubvick in Newfoundland), the highest point in Quebec, rises 5,420 feet (1,652 meters) in the northeastern part of the Canadian Shield. The Laurentian Mountains, or Laurentides, form the southeastern edge of the Canadian Shield in Quebec. Some of the province’s highest ranges rise in the Laurentides Provincial Park and Mont Tremblant Provincial Park areas.

The St. Lawrence Lowland

consists chiefly of the St. Lawrence River Valley and the Montreal Plain. It includes Anticosti Island and islands in the river’s mouth. The lowland is about 10 miles (16 kilometers) wide near Quebec City, and broadens to about 100 miles (160 kilometers) at Montreal. The plain lies less than 500 feet (150 meters) above sea level, but is broken by some rocky hills. Eight hills called the Monteregians rise in the southwestern part of the lowland. The best known is Mount Royal, which is 763 feet (233 meters) high. It overlooks Montreal.

The fertile soil of the St. Lawrence Lowland supports most of Quebec’s farming. The many cities and towns in the St. Lawrence River Valley make it one of the most heavily populated regions of Canada.

The Appalachian Region

is the northeastern extension of the Appalachian Mountains of the Eastern United States. It extends from Vermont along the province’s southeastern boundary. This region consists of three main sections: (1) the Eastern Townships, between the St. Lawrence River Valley and the Canadian-United States border; (2) the South Shore, which extends along the mouth of the St. Lawrence from the Eastern Townships to the Gaspé Peninsula; and (3) the Gaspé Peninsula, north of New Brunswick. The land is broken by lakes, mountains, and streams.

In the gently rolling Eastern Townships, the Sutton Mountains form an extension of the Green Mountains of Vermont. The South Shore has two separate areas. The Piedmont Region along the St. Lawrence estuary is a rich farming area, and the inland plateau has thick forests. The Gaspé Peninsula is also heavily forested. Mountain ranges in the interior of the peninsula make transportation between the northern and southern coasts difficult.

The Hudson Bay Lowland

extends into Quebec from Ontario. In Quebec, it covers a small strip of land south of James Bay.

Coastline.

Water forms most of Quebec’s boundaries. The province has a coastline of 8,558 miles (13,773 kilometers), including bays, inlets, and offshore islands. The main bodies of water that surround Quebec are James and Hudson bays on the west, Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay on the north, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the southeast and south.

North of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the coastline is uneven. Many bays cut into the land, and rocks rise along the water’s edge. To the south, along the Gaspé Peninsula, the coastline is more regular. The waters along the northern and western coasts usually remain frozen from the end of December to May.

Rivers, waterfalls, and lakes.

Inland waters in Quebec cover 71,000 square miles (184,000 square kilometers). Quebec has a greater total area of fresh water than any other province. Its many rivers help make it a leading producer and exporter of hydroelectric power in Canada and the United States.

Quebec’s principal river is the St. Lawrence. The river enters Quebec at the point where the province, New York, and Ontario meet. It then flows northeast into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Long before the French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence in 1535, First Nations people used the river. Since then, this important trade route has influenced the life and development of Quebec and Canada. Its importance increased greatly in 1959, when the St. Lawrence Seaway was completed. The seaway allows large oceangoing ships to travel up the river and to the Great Lakes.

All the other important rivers in Quebec flow into the St. Lawrence. Most of them, including the Saguenay, St. Maurice, and Ottawa, rise in the Canadian Shield and join the St. Lawrence from the north or northwest. The Ottawa River marks much of Quebec’s border with Ontario, to the west. The principal rivers south of the St. Lawrence include the Chaudière, Richelieu, and St. Francis.

Rivers flowing east, north, or west into James Bay, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, and Ungava Bay drain more than half the province. Many of them are more than 200 miles (320 kilometers) long. Many of these rivers are used to produce hydroelectricity.

Most of Quebec’s rivers have waterfalls and rapids. Many of the rapids, such as Rapide Blanc on the St. Maurice River and Rapide des Quinze on the Ottawa River, are the sites of hydroelectric power dams. The best-known falls include Shawinigan Falls, which drops 146 feet (45 meters) on the St. Maurice River; 114-foot (35-meter) Joffre Falls on the Chaudière River; and 251-foot (77-meter) Montmorency Falls on the Montmorency River.

Beautiful lakes lie throughout Quebec. More than 20 of them cover over 100 square miles (260 square kilometers) each. The Canadian Shield has the largest lakes, of which 840-square-mile (2,180-square-kilometer) Lake Mistassini is the biggest. Other lakes in this region include Lac-a-l’Eau-Claire, Lac St.-Jean, and Lakes Bienville, Caniapiscau, and Minto. Lakes Mégantic and Memphremagog, just north of Maine, are famous among fishing enthusiasts.

Plant and animal life.

Forests cover about 319,000 square miles (825,000 square kilometers), about 55 percent of Quebec’s land. The southern part of the Canadian Shield has important stands of balsam fir and spruce, Quebec’s most valuable trees. Maples, pines, and white and yellow birches also grow there. Small stands of balsam, birch, black and white spruce, dwarf aspen, and willow trees grow in northern Quebec. Mosses and lichens grow west of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait. The Appalachian Region has thick stands of timber. Most of Quebec’s maple trees grow in the Eastern Townships. Forest wildflowers include bellworts, bloodroots, dogtooth violets, spring beauties, squirrel corn, and trilliums. Buttercups, daisies, and prairie strawberries and raspberries grow on Quebec’s prairies.

Beavers, foxes, martens, minks, muskrats, and seals are the most numerous fur-bearing animals in Quebec. There are many caribou in the north, but their population has declined significantly since the 1990’s. Bears are found throughout the province. Large numbers of deer, moose, and raccoons live in the southern regions. Game birds include black ducks and geese. Fish in the waters off Quebec include cod, herring, and redfish. Crabs, lobsters, and scallops also live in these waters. Fish in Quebec’s inland rivers and lakes include bass, pike, muskellunge, salmon, and trout.

Climate.

Quebec’s climate varies greatly. The average annual temperature ranges from 44 °F (7 °C) in the far south to 17 °F (–8 °C) in the far north.

Quebec’s winters are long and cold. The average January temperature in the north is about –11 °F (–24 °C). In July, the average temperature there is 52 °F (11 °C). In southern Quebec, the average January temperature is about 10 °F (–12 °C). Summers are warm, but short. The average July temperature is 68 °F (20 °C).

In southern Quebec, precipitation (rain, melted snow, and other forms of moisture) averages about 40 inches (102 centimeters) a year. The north receives about 24 inches (60 centimeters) annually. Most places in Quebec get from 70 to 140 inches (178 to 356 centimeters) of snow yearly, most of it between late November and mid-March.

Economy

Many early settlers of Quebec earned their living by farming, fishing, or fur trading. Logging became important in the early 1800’s, manufacturing grew in the mid-1800’s, and mining began to develop during the early 1900’s. Service industries have grown rapidly in importance since the mid-1900’s. The development of Quebec’s economy has been boosted by the province’s natural resources, which include rivers well suited to shipping and hydroelectric power.

Today, service industries combine to account for the largest portion of Quebec’s gross domestic product (GDP)—the total value of goods and services that are produced in the province in a year. Quebec has a higher GDP than any of the other provinces except Ontario.

Natural resources

of Quebec include rich soils and vast mineral deposits. The province also has great forests, much wildlife, and plentiful supplies of water.

Soil.

The St. Lawrence Lowland has the province’s richest soils. They are composed chiefly of sediments (material that settles to the bottom of liquid). The sediments were deposited by the sea and various lakes and streams that covered the region after the most recent ice age, which ended about 11,500 years ago. The soils include clays, loams, sands, and silts.

Material deposited by the ice age glaciers, and some lake sediments, cover most of the Appalachian Region. These soils include clays, limestone and slate loams, sands, and sandy loams. Stony soils occur in much of the Eastern Townships. The Gaspé Peninsula has sandy soils broken by boulders. Heavy loams occur on the southern shores of the peninsula.

Granites, schists, and other stone are found in most of the Canadian Shield. Most of the soil covering is thin and not suitable for agriculture. A rock and clay soil covers the Hudson Bay Lowland.

Minerals.

The Canadian Shield has some of the world’s largest deposits of metallic minerals. Vast iron ore deposits lie along the central part of the Labrador border and near Ungava Bay. Most copper deposits are in the Chibougamau and Rouyn-Noranda areas. Lead and zinc are found on the Gaspé Peninsula. Northern Quebec also has nickel deposits.

The most important gold-bearing ore deposits are located near Rouyn-Noranda and Val-d’Or. This area also has deposits of uranium and zinc. Another rich mining territory lies west and northwest of Montreal. This area has deposits of a great variety of minerals, including feldspar, granite, graphite, kaolin, magnesite, mica, molybdenum, and silica.

Service industries

account for most of Quebec’s gross domestic product and employment. These industries are concentrated in the Montreal and Quebec City metropolitan areas.

Montreal ranks second only to Toronto among Canada’s leading financial centers. Such major banks as the Bank of Montreal, the National Bank of Canada, and the Royal Bank of Canada have large operations in the city. Montreal is also the home of three of Canada’s largest universities: Concordia University, McGill University, and the University of Montreal. Several of the world’s largest engineering research companies are based in Montreal.

Most provincial and local government employees work in the Montreal and Quebec City areas. Université Laval (Laval University) is in Quebec City. Several federal agencies have their headquarters in the Gatineau area. The Fédération des Caisses Desjardins du Québec, an organization that supports credit unions, has its headquarters in Lévis, across the St. Lawrence River from Quebec City.

Manufacturing.

The province’s vast raw materials and hydroelectric power have helped industries develop. Quebec’s factories, mills, and refineries account for about 25 percent of the value of Canada’s total industrial production. Most of Quebec’s production occurs in the Montreal area, which ranks second only to the Toronto area among Canada’s manufacturing centers.

Montreal is a major center of Canada’s aerospace industry. Such leading aerospace companies as Bell Helicopter Textron, Bombardier Aerospace, Pratt and Whitney Canada, and Rolls-Royce Canada employ many in the Montreal area. The city also produces pharmaceutical products.

Food-processing plants are concentrated in the area between Montreal and Quebec City. Quebec produces beverages, dairy products, and meat. Leading beverages include beer, coffee, soft drinks, and tea. Dairy products include cheese, milk, and yogurt. Pork and poultry are important meat products. The industry also turns out large amounts of baked goods, canned fruits and vegetables, livestock feed, and snack foods.

The province produces most of Canada’s aluminum. Aluminum plants along the Saguenay and St. Lawrence rivers and a steel plant in Contrecoeur account for most of Quebec’s primary metals production. Quebec is also one of the leading provinces in the production of paper.

Agriculture.

Farmland covers a small portion of Quebec’s land area, mostly in the St. Lawrence Lowland. Livestock products account for the majority of the province’s farming production.

Dairy production accounts for the largest part of Quebec’s farm income. Quebec ranks among the leading provinces and states in milk production and in the number of dairy cattle. Most of Quebec’s dairy farms are in the southernmost part of the province. Much of the milk goes into the manufacture of butter, cheese, ice cream, powdered milk, and yogurt. The farmers sell most of the rest of the milk for drinking.

Hogs are the most valuable meat animals raised in Quebec. Farmers in the rural areas surrounding Montreal and Quebec City keep the largest number of hogs. Most of the beef cattle and poultry are raised in the southern part of the province. Only Ontario raises more chickens and eggs than Quebec. Quebec farmers also keep sheep and turkeys.

Nearly all farmers in the province grow some vegetables. Important vegetables include broccoli, cabbage, carrots, green beans, lettuce, onions, peas, potatoes, and sweet corn. Growing ornamental plants also has become an important activity.

Apples, one of Quebec’s most important fruit crops, are grown chiefly in the Montreal area. Farmers also raise blueberries, cranberries, raspberries, and strawberries.

Corn is Quebec’s leading field crop, and Quebec is one of Canada’s leading corn producers. Most of the corn is grown in the far southern part of the province. Farmers in Quebec also grow barley, oats, soybeans, and wheat. Much of the grain is used as livestock feed.

Quebec leads the provinces and states in the production of maple products. Over half of the world’s maple syrup, sugar, and taffy comes from Quebec.

Mining.

Gold, iron ore, and nickel are among the leading mineral products of Quebec. Quebec is Canada’s second leading gold-producing province. Only Ontario produces more gold. Gold mines operate around Rouyn-Noranda and Val-d’Or. Most of the gold ore also contains silver. The Fermont area near the Labrador border supplies most of Quebec’s iron ore. Nickel is mined in the Ungava Peninsula.

Quebec is a large producer of titanium. It is obtained from ilmenite ore in the Lake Allard area, north of Havre-St.-Pierre. Titanium is a metal that is highly resistant to corrosion and heat. It is used in the production of paint and many other items.

Quebec is Canada’s only producer of niobium, and a leading producer of copper, diamonds, silver, and zinc. Quebec’s other mined products include clays, limestone, peat, salt, and sand and gravel.

Forestry.

Quebec is one of the leading timber-producing areas of North America. Balsam firs, jack pines, and spruce provide much of the province’s timber. The most productive forests in Quebec lie in a broad belt that extends west from Sept-Îles to the Ontario border. Much of the timber in Quebec is used by the paper industry.

Fishing.

Crabs and lobsters are Quebec’s most valuable catches. They account for most of the province’s total fishing income. Other important catches include Greenland turbot and shrimp.

Electric power and utilities.

Quebec is a leading producer of hydroelectric power in North America. The province produces hydroelectric power more cheaply than most other regions in North America because it has great water resources.

Hydroelectric plants supply almost all of Quebec’s electric power. Much of the rest comes from petroleum. Quebec’s hydroelectric plants are managed primarily by Hydro-Québec, a government corporation. The major hydroelectric plants lie on the La Grande and Manicouagan rivers. Hydro-Québec sells surplus electric power to neighboring Canadian provinces and U.S. states.

Transportation.

Quebec’s first major road was the Chemin du Roi (King’s Highway), built between Montreal and Quebec City in the 1730’s. Today, Quebec’s system of roads includes limited-access superhighways called autoroutes, secondary highways, and local roads. Montreal is the hub of the province’s highway network.

Canada’s first major canal, the Lachine Canal, bypassed the Lachine Rapids on the St. Lawrence River near Montreal. This canal opened in 1825. It closed in 1970, after ships began using the new South Shore Canal.

Montreal is at the gateway to the St. Lawrence Seaway, which leads to the Great Lakes. Sorel is at the head of a waterway leading south to New York City. The Richelieu and Ottawa rivers, like the St. Lawrence Seaway, have canal systems. Most of Quebec’s chief ports, such as Baie-Comeau, Bécancour, Montreal, Port-Cartier, Quebec City, Sept-Îles, Sorel, and Trois-Rivières, lie along the St. Lawrence River. These ports are accessible by boat all year long.

A 15-mile (24-kilometer) railroad, the first in Canada, began operating between Laprairie and Saint-Jean in 1836. In the 1800’s, Montreal was the headquarters for Canada’s major railroad companies, including the Grand Trunk and the Canadian Pacific. Today, Quebec’s railroads are mainly in the St. Lawrence Lowland and the Appalachian Region. Other lines reach the mining areas to the north and connect Quebec with Ontario and the United States.

Quebec has two international airports. They are the Montreal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport and the Jean Lesage International Airport at Quebec City. The province also has several domestic airports and many landing facilities for helicopters and seaplanes.

Communication.

Quebec has many daily newspapers. Most of them are printed in French. Publishing in the province began in 1764 with the founding of the Quebec Gazette in Quebec City. This newspaper was published in both French and English until 1842, when it changed to English only. In 1884, the paper merged with the Quebec Chronicle-Telegraph, which is still published.

In 1776, a French printer, Fleury Mesplet, came to Montreal with Benjamin Franklin. The two men published propaganda material for the 13 American Colonies during the American Revolution (1775-1783). In 1778, Mesplet began publishing La Gazette du Commerce et Littéraire, pour la Ville et District de Montréal, which is now the English-language Montreal newspaper The Gazette.

Le Journal de Montréal is the newspaper with the largest daily circulation in Quebec. Other large Montreal newspapers include La Presse, Le Devoir, and The Gazette. Quebec City’s two daily newspapers are Le Journal de Québec and Le Soleil.

In 1919, the Canadian Marconi Company made the first radio broadcast in Canada, from Montreal. Its station, CFCF, began regular broadcasts in 1920. The government-owned Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (now called Canadian Broadcasting Corporation/Radio-Canada [CBC/Radio-Canada]) introduced television broadcasting in the province in 1952. Station CBFT of Montreal began broadcasting that year, chiefly in French. Today, Quebec has dozens of radio and television stations. Most TV stations broadcast in French. Cable and satellite TV systems service most Quebec communities and provide access to major U.S. and English-language Canadian networks.

Government

Lieutenant governor

of Quebec represents the British monarch, Canada’s official head of state, in the province. The lieutenant governor is appointed by Canada’s governor general in council—that is, the governor general acting with the advice and consent of the federal Cabinet. The position of lieutenant governor is largely ceremonial.

Premier

of Quebec is the actual head of the provincial government. Quebec, like Canada itself, has a parliamentary form of government. The premier is an elected member of the National Assembly. The person who serves as premier is usually the leader of the majority party in the Assembly.

The premier presides over the Executive Council (cabinet). The council includes other ministers chosen by the premier from among the majority party’s members in the legislature. The ministers direct about 25 departments of the government. The council resigns if it loses the support of a majority of the legislature.

Legislature.

Quebec has a one-house legislature called the National Assembly. Each of its 125 members is elected from an electoral district and serves a term of up to five years. If the lieutenant governor, on the advice of the premier, calls for a general election (province-wide election) before five years have passed, all Assembly members must run again for office. The legislature meets at least once a year.

Quebec formerly had a two-house legislature. The lower house was called the Legislative Assembly and the upper house the Legislative Council. But in 1968, the Legislative Council was abolished, and the Legislative Assembly became the National Assembly.

Courts.

The highest court in Quebec is the Court of Appeal, which hears cases in Quebec City and Montreal. Decisions of the Court of Appeal can be appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada. The Quebec Superior Court meets in the major cities of 36 judicial districts. The federal government appoints all judges of the Court of Appeal and the Superior Court. The judges may hold office until the age of 75, but they become semi-retired at age 65. The lower courts of Quebec include the Court of Quebec, which has more than 300 judges, and the municipal courts. Provincial authorities appoint the judges of these courts.

Quebec is the only province in which judges do not decide civil cases chiefly on the basis of common law. Under the common-law system, developed in England, rulings are determined by previous court decisions and by the customs of the people. In Quebec, judges decide civil cases mainly on rules in the Civil Code, which has its origins in the Code Napoleon, also called the Napoleonic Code. The judges can disregard the decisions of other judges in similar cases. In criminal matters, the courts follow a federal criminal code. Because of Quebec’s unique legal system, Canada’s constitution requires that three of the nine judges on the Supreme Court of Canada come from Quebec.

Local government.

The first level of local government in Quebec consists of cantons (townships), cantons-unis (united townships), parishes, towns, and villages. These are governed by a mayor and at least six council members, all elected by the people. Also, Quebec has many regional county municipalities (RCM’s). Each RCM covers a certain area of the province and contains a number of the first-level local government units. A council made up of the mayors of the communities that fall within an RCM govern that RCM. RCM’s are responsible for such matters as land-use planning, land assessment, and emergency measures. Some of Quebec’s largest cities, including Montreal and Quebec City, do not come under the authority of an RCM.

Revenue.

Taxes account for about 60 percent of the province’s general revenue (income). Quebec is the only province that collects provincial personal income taxes, instead of having the federal government collect them. Corporate profits and retail sales are also taxed.

The provincial government receives about 20 percent of its revenue from federal-provincial tax-sharing arrangements. Most of Quebec’s other revenue comes from license and permit fees and from the sale of liquor. The sale of liquor in Quebec is under government control.

Politics.

One of four political parties controlled Quebec’s government from the time Quebec became a province in 1867 until 2018. These parties were the Conservative, Liberal, and Union Nationale parties, and the Parti Québécois (PQ).

The Conservatives held power for the first 30 years, except for two brief administrations under the Liberals. In 1896, Wilfrid Laurier, a Liberal from Quebec, became the first French-Canadian prime minister of Canada. His victory helped bring the Liberals to power in Quebec in 1897.

The Union Nationale party, led by Maurice Duplessis, governed during much of the 1930’s to 1950’s. It strongly supported autonomy (self-rule) for the province.

Power shifted between the Liberal and Union Nationale parties from 1960 to 1976, and then between the Parti Québécois and the Liberal Party. In 2018 and 2022, the center-right Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ), which had been formed in 2011, won decisive majorities in the National Assembly.

History

Early days.

People first settled in the Quebec region several thousand years ago, after the glaciers of the last ice age had disappeared. When the first Europeans arrived, Inuit and First Nations peoples were living there. The Inuit lived in the far north, chiefly west of Ungava Bay and along Hudson Bay. The Innu First Nations people lived in the south and eastern parts of Quebec. Those who lived in the eastern part were often called the Naskapi. Some Innu lived toward the south, between the St. Maurice River and present-day Sept-Îles. The French called them Montagnais (mountaineers). The Cree lived between the Innu and Inuit lands and south of James Bay. Other First Nations peoples included the Algonquin, Maliseet (also called Wolastoqiyik), and Mi’kmaq.

The beginning of European settlement.

In 1534, the French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed into what is now the Gulf of St. Lawrence and claimed the Quebec region for France. This region became the base of France’s colonial empire in North America, called New France. In 1608, the French explorer Samuel de Champlain established the first permanent colony at Quebec City, beginning nearly 150 years of French rule. Some 30,000 French people migrated to New France between 1608 and 1759. But only about 10,000 to 12,000 stayed there permanently. In 1759, the British defeated the French in the Battle of Quebec, also known as the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 gave control of Quebec to Britain (now the United Kingdom).

In 1791, the British divided Quebec into two colonies— Upper Canada (now southern Ontario) and Lower Canada (now southern Quebec). English settlers formed a majority in Upper Canada and French people made up a majority in Lower Canada. Following armed rebellions in both colonies in 1837-1838, the Act of Union of 1840 united Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. For information on the early history of Quebec, see Canada, History of; New France.

Early years as a province.

The British North America Act of 1867 created the Dominion of Canada with four provinces. The Province of Canada became the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. The other provinces of the Dominion were New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. French, in addition to English, was recognized as one of Quebec’s two official languages. The act gave Quebec direct control over its education and civil law. However, it also guaranteed the education rights of Canada’s two major religious groups—Catholics and Protestants. In Quebec, the Protestant, English-speaking minority received provincial funds for its schools. But Quebec’s French Canadians soon discovered that French Canadians in some other provinces were prevented from using public funds to establish Roman Catholic, French-language schools.

Relations between French and English Canadians grew worse after the Métis (people of mixed white and First Nations ancestry) of Saskatchewan rebelled in 1885. Louis Riel, a French, Catholic Métis, was their leader. Riel was convicted of treason and hanged later that year. Many French Canadians considered Riel a hero who had been unjustly killed. Many English Canadians regarded him as a traitor. See North West Rebellion.

Tension between the French- and English-speaking Canadians rose again in 1899. That year, the United Kingdom went to war against the Boers in South Africa. Many French Canadians opposed fighting in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. Some English-speaking Canadians considered it Canada’s duty to send troops to aid the British.

Sir Wilfrid Laurier of Quebec, Canada’s first French-Canadian prime minister, spent government funds to equip volunteers and send them to South Africa, where they joined the British army. This policy angered many people in Quebec, especially Laurier’s former ally Henri Bourassa. Bourassa objected to providing support for the United Kingdom and held that Canadians should be loyal first to Canada.

About 1900, a period of rapid industrialization began in Quebec. In 1912, Quebec nearly doubled in size. Its northwestern boundaries were extended to Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait. Interest in the region’s natural resources grew, and Quebec and the colony of Newfoundland disputed the Quebec-Labrador boundary. The British Privy Council settled the dispute in 1927 in favor of Newfoundland. However, Quebec never has formally recognized the border.

World War I.

Tensions again developed between English and French Canadians during World War I (1914-1918). At first the country was united behind the war effort, but soon some English Canadians accused French Canadians of not enlisting. French Canadians pointed out that most English Canadian volunteers had been born in the United Kingdom. Matters worsened when courts upheld a decision by Ontario to abolish the use of French in its schools. French Canadians asked why they should fight for the United Kingdom when the United Kingdom’s supporters were denying them equal rights in their own country.

In 1917, Canada began drafting men into the army. In 1918, the army was used to put down antidraft riots in Quebec City. A French-Canadian battalion of volunteers, the 22nd Battalion, had been formed in 1914. This battalion, which eventually included some draftees, fought in France from 1915 until the end of the war. Two of its members were awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest military honor in the British Empire.

Between the wars.

After World War I, industry continued to expand rapidly. More people from rural areas found work in the cities. Until this time, many had been moving to Ontario or the United States.

Many French-Canadian leaders resented the industrial expansion, which was controlled by the English Canadians and Americans. The French Canadians feared that their language and culture would not survive in the cities, where English was the main language used in business. But the people accepted this threat because the new industry offered an improved living standard.

World War II.

During World War II (1939-1945), Quebec was of great value to the Allies. The province had a large labor force, plentiful electric power, and huge deposits of asbestos, copper, and zinc. Quebec’s industrial production nearly tripled.

Tension between French and English Canadians developed again during the war. In 1944, the federal government, under the Liberal Party, set up a military draft for service overseas, despite promises to Quebecers that it would not do so. Partly as a result, Quebec voters elected the Union Nationale party to power in 1944. The new government, under Premier Maurice Duplessis, emphasized French-Canadian political rights in Quebec and opposed control by the federal government.

Postwar Quebec.

The economic growth in Quebec that followed World War II extended into the 1950’s and 1960’s. In 1950, mines near Havre-Saint-Pierre began to produce ilmenite, a titanium ore. In 1954, an asbestos fiber mill that was then the largest in the world opened in the town of Asbestos. In 1960, huge asbestos deposits were discovered in the Ungava Peninsula.

In 1960, the Liberal Party won control of Quebec’s government. Jean Lesage became premier and served in this position from 1960 to 1966. This period often is called Quebec’s Quiet Revolution because of its many reforms and the secularization of such social service institutions as hospitals and schools. To secularize means to separate from religious influence. A new labor code made it easier to form trade unions. A new Ministry of Education was established, and it increased the number of high schools, colleges, and universities. A major symbol of the Quiet Revolution was putting hydroelectric power production under Quebec government control, under the slogan “Maîtres chez nous” (“Masters in our own house”).

During the 1960’s, Quebec and other provinces became dissatisfied with joint federal and provincial social programs and division of taxes. Quebec exercised the provinces’ right to withdraw from these programs and to administer its share of taxes without federal supervision. Quebec then gained control of its pension plans, social security programs, and student loans.

The 1960’s also saw a surge of nationalist feelings among French-speaking Quebecers. A number of them wanted Quebec to secede (withdraw) from the Canadian confederation and form a separate nation. Some Quebecers used demonstrations to promote secession, and a few extremists used bombings. In 1968, many separatist groups joined forces and formed the Parti Québécois (PQ). René Lévesque, a former Quebec Liberal cabinet minister, led the party.

The late 1900’s.

In 1970, members of the Front de Liberation du Québec (FLQ), a revolutionary separatist group, kidnapped British Trade Commissioner James R. Cross and Quebec Labor Minister Pierre Laporte. Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau suspended civil liberties and sent thousands of federal troops to Quebec cities to protect public officials and buildings. Provincial police arrested about 450 people. Laporte was later murdered, and four FLQ members were convicted of the crime. Trudeau and Quebec authorities allowed Cross’s kidnappers to go to Cuba in return for his release.

In 1974, the National Assembly adopted French as Quebec’s only official language. This act promoted French-language instruction in schools and made French Quebec’s chief language of business and government.

In the 1976 general election, the Parti Québécois won control of the government. Lévesque became premier. In 1977, the legislature adopted the Charter of the French Language, also called Bill 101. The charter established deadlines and fines to help enforce the program to make French Quebec’s chief language. But the Supreme Court of Canada later ruled that parts of the charter were unconstitutional.

In a 1980 referendum (direct public vote), Lévesque’s government asked voters for authority to negotiate a sovereignty association with the rest of Canada. Such an association would give Quebec political independence but maintain its economic ties to Canada. Voters rejected the proposal.

In 1981, proposed changes in Canada’s constitution upset many French-speaking Quebecers. They felt the proposals would not help preserve and promote Quebec’s French character. In 1982, the proposals became part of a revised constitution that was accepted by all provincial legislatures except Quebec.

Lévesque resigned as party leader and premier in the autumn of 1985, and the PQ was defeated in a general election in December. Former Premier Robert Bourassa of the Liberal Party again became premier and held the position until 1994.

In April 1987, at Meech Lake, Quebec, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and all the provincial premiers developed a plan for a new constitutional amendment. The amendment provided for Quebec to be recognized as a distinct society within Canada. Mulroney and the provincial leaders approved the proposed amendment, known as the Meech Lake Accord, in June 1987. The accord became a divisive issue across Canada.

To take effect, the accord had to be ratified by all 10 provinces by June 23, 1990. However, Newfoundland (now called Newfoundland and Labrador) withdrew its support, and Manitoba failed to ratify it. Many Quebecers then began to demand more independence. In 1992, fundamental changes to the national government were again under consideration, primarily to keep Quebec part of Canada. Among the possible changes was the transfer of certain federal powers to the provinces. But voters in Quebec and five other provinces voted against the changes in an October referendum.

The separatist Parti Québécois won a majority of seats in a 1994 general election. PQ leader Jacques Parizeau became premier. In October 1995, the Quebec government held a referendum on independence for Quebec. The proposal was narrowly defeated, with 50.58 percent voting against independence. Parizeau then resigned as premier and PQ leader and was replaced by Lucien Bouchard.

In late 1995 and early 1996, the Canadian Parliament passed resolutions aimed at promoting national unity. In 1996, the federal government asked the Supreme Court of Canada to decide if Quebec had a right to secede on its own. The court ruled that it did not. The federal government then passed the Clarity Act, setting out rules governing any future referendum on independence.

The early 2000’s.

In 2001, Bernard Landry replaced Bouchard as PQ leader and premier. Under Premiers Bouchard and Landry, the provincial government had many disputes with the federal government, led by Liberal Prime Minister Jean Chrétien. In 2003, the provincial Liberal Party, led by Jean Charest, won control of Quebec’s government. The Liberals remained in power until 2012.

In the spring of 2012, Montreal was the center of massive student demonstrations against university tuition increases. Opposition to the increases helped defeat Quebec’s Liberal government in a fall general election. The PQ was elected, and party leader Pauline Marois became Quebec’s first woman premier. The PQ lost the 2014 general election to the Liberals, and Philippe Couillard became premier. The center-right Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ), led by François Legault, won majorities in Quebec’s legislature in general elections in 2018 and 2022. The party supported stronger policies to protect Quebec’s French language and culture.

In the early 2000’s, Quebec’s government faced public anxiety about the cultural values of recent immigrants and how those values might affect Quebec’s French character. During this time, the government, under several different administrations, proposed legislation to ban the wearing of religious symbols by people providing or receiving public services. In 2019, Quebec’s legislature passed a controversial secularism law banning certain public employees from wearing religious symbols, such as Muslim headscarves, Jewish skullcaps, and Christian crosses. Secularism is the idea that religion should remain separate from politics and government.