Railroad is one of the most important means of transportation. Every day, thousands of trains speed along railroad tracks throughout the world. Some trains carry passengers. Others haul coal, grain, lumber, machinery, and other products on which people depend. Only ships carry heavier cargoes for longer distances. And only airplanes provide a faster means of public transportation than do railroads. A freight train can haul thousands of tons of goods across a continent. Some of the fastest wheeled passenger trains can operate at more than 200 miles per hour (mph), or 320 kilometers per hour (kph). Magnetic levitation trains, or maglevs, float above their tracks and can travel even faster. In many parts of the world, railroads are also called railways.
Railroads use a two-railed track to guide trains of cars along a permanent route. Trains therefore are not steered, unlike airplanes, automobiles, and ships. Powerful diesel-electric or electric locomotives move most trains along the track. However, older steam locomotives still haul a few trains in some parts of the world, such as China and India.
Loading the player...Steam train
Almost every country has at least one railroad. The world’s longest rail line is in Russia. It extends about 5,600 miles (9,000 kilometers) and connects Moscow and Vladivostok. Laid end-to-end, the tracks of the world’s main railroad routes would stretch about 680,000 miles (1,100,000 kilometers)—about three times the distance from Earth to the moon.
The word railroad may refer not only to a method of transportation, but also to an organization that provides rail transportation. In many countries, a government agency or government-owned corporation operates the railroads. In other countries, including the United States, private companies own and operate all or most of the main railroads.
The first public railroads began in the United Kingdom in the 1820’s and 1830’s. They used steam locomotives to haul wagons loaded with freight or coaches carrying passengers. By the mid-1800’s, other countries also had steam-powered railroads. During the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, thousands of steam trains made their way across the U.S. countryside, carrying most of the nation’s freight and long-distance passengers. The first railroad across western North America was completed in 1869 and so helped open the American West to settlers.
Over the years, railroads have faced ever-increasing competition from other forms of transportation. In most countries, the central government supports the railroads. But in a few countries, including the United States, freight railroads get little government aid. Private railroads generally face greater financial risks than do government-owned ones.
How railroads serve the public
Railroads provide two main types of service: (1) passenger service and (2) freight service. The importance of each type of railroad service varies from country to country.
Passenger service.
Railroads operate two main types of passenger trains: commuter trains and intercity trains. Commuter trains carry passengers between large cities and the surrounding suburbs. Most of these trains are made up of a locomotive and a number of coaches. Coaches provide seats for passengers but do not ordinarily offer any extra services, such as meals or refreshments. Intercity trains make longer runs than most commuter trains do. The longest intercity runs cover great distances and take several days to complete. As a result, many intercity passenger trains have special cars, such as dining cars and sleeping cars, in addition to coaches.
Since the 1940’s, the number of rail passengers has declined sharply in many industrial countries, as more and more people travel by automobile and airplane. For example, railroads in the United States now carry less than 1 percent of all intercity passenger traffic. In some countries, however, passenger trains have not faced such strong competition from other forms of transportation. People in China, India, Japan, and most European countries still rely heavily on trains for intercity transportation. And even in the United States, thousands of people who live in suburban areas ride commuter trains into major cities.
Commuter trains.
A majority of rail passengers ride commuter trains. Each working day, these trains carry great numbers of suburban residents to and from work in such large cities as London and New York City. Commuter trains also serve many other cities throughout the world, including Berlin, Chicago, Johannesburg, Moscow, New Delhi, Paris, São Paulo, Tokyo, and Toronto. Some intercity trains also serve commuters.
It takes up to 1,000 automobiles to carry as many commuters as one commuter train can carry. Commuter trains thus help relieve rush-hour traffic jams on city highways. By reducing the number of automobiles in use, commuter trains help conserve fuel. They also help reduce air pollution caused by exhaust fumes.
Intercity trains.
Some countries have unusually fast, efficient intercity passenger trains. The world’s fastest intercity passenger trains operate in China, France, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Some of the fastest of these trains can travel more than 200 mph (320 kph) between stops. They may average more than 175 mph (282 kph). High-speed trains also serve cities in Germany, the United Kingdom, and other European countries. Some of the Japanese and European high-speed trains offer a number of luxury services, including gift shops, telephones, and meals served at the passengers’ seats.
Some Canadian intercity trains, called Corridor Trains, also provide luxury service. One of these trains carries passengers between Toronto and Montreal—a 335-mile (539-kilometer) journey—at an average speed of about 80 mph (130 kph).
In the early 1900’s, there were thousands of passenger trains in the United States, linking almost all U.S. cities. Today, only about 125 daily intercity trains serve the entire country. The only high-speed trains operating in the United States are Acela trains. They serve a number of cities in the northeastern United States and can reach a speed of 150 mph (240 kph).
Freight service.
In many countries, most of the income earned by railroads comes from hauling freight. Railroads provide the most inexpensive method of land transportation over long distances. Trains are used extensively to carry such bulk goods as chemicals, coal, grain, iron ore, and petroleum. They also carry such manufactured goods as automobiles and television sets, and such agricultural products as fruits, vegetables, and meats. Some of the cars on a freight train are empty cars being moved to various points for reloading.
Railroads use many types of cars and freight-handling equipment. Bulk materials, such as coal and ores, travel in open cars with hatches (doors) underneath. Such cars can be emptied quickly through these doors. Powdered materials, such as cement, travel in cars that are pressurized steel containers. The cars are loaded and unloaded using air pressure that pumps the material in or out through pipes. Chemicals, gasoline, milk, and other liquids are carried in tank cars. Refrigerated cars transport fruits, vegetables, and meats. Special railroad cars with two or three decks are used to carry automobiles.
The longest freight trains have 200 or more cars. In the United States, a typical freight train has about 80 cars and carries about 5,000 tons (4,500 metric tons) of goods.
Railroads in many countries carry more freight today than ever before. However, railroads haul a smaller share of the total freight traffic than in the past. For example, in 1929, railroads handled almost 75 percent of all the freight carried between U.S. cities. Today, they carry about 40 percent of all intercity commercial freight.
To attract more customers, railroads in many countries have tried to improve their freight service. In the 1950’s, for example, U.S. railroads introduced piggyback service—the use of flatcars to carry truck trailers loaded with freight. Piggyback service attracted shippers because one train could carry many truck trailers for a fraction of what it cost to haul them individually by highway. Today, U.S. railroads carry hundreds of thousands of truck trailers each year. Another type of service uses flatcars to haul large containers loaded with freight. The containers are transferred to the flatcars from specially designed ships or trucks (see Containerization). The Freight operations section of this article discusses other improvements in freight service.
What makes up a railroad
A railroad consists basically of a track along which locomotives pull trains of cars. The track is made up of two steel rails fastened lengthwise to a series of wooden or concrete crossties, called sleepers in some countries. The wheel-and-axle assemblies on locomotives and cars are specially designed to run on the track. Each wheel has a flange (raised edge) around its rim. The flanges on each pair of wheels guide the wheels along the track. Switches—short movable rails—are built into a track where it meets other tracks. By turning a switch, a train can be made to run from one track to another. A railroad also includes signal and communications systems to control train traffic, stations to handle passengers and freight, yards to make up trains, and shops to repair locomotives and cars.
Rolling stock
is a term that refers to railroad locomotives and cars.
Locomotives.
Most trains are pulled by a locomotive at the head of the train. But some locomotives push as well as pull. These locomotives are especially useful on commuter lines because they eliminate the need to turn a train around for a return trip at the end of a run.
Locomotives can be classified into two groups by the work they do. Road locomotives haul freight or passenger trains. Switching locomotives, sometimes called shunting locomotives or switch engines, move cars from track to track in rail yards.
Almost all locomotives can also be classified into three groups according to how they are powered. Diesel-electric locomotives use oil-burning diesel engines to turn electric generators. The electric power produced by the generators runs the motors that turn the locomotive’s wheels. Electric locomotives work much as diesel-electrics do. But instead of producing their own electric power, they get it from wires suspended above the track or from an electrified third rail. Steam locomotives burn coal or fuel oil to produce steam. The force of the steam powers the locomotive. 
A few trains are hauled by two other kinds of locomotives. Gas-turbine electric locomotives use the force of hot gases to run turbines, which in turn operate electric generators. Power produced by the generators runs the locomotives. Diesel-hydraulic locomotives use diesel engines to produce energy that is transmitted to the driving mechanisms by means of fluids under pressure. See Locomotive and Electric railroad.
Railroads in most industrial countries operate both diesel-electric and electric locomotives. Almost all locomotives operated by U.S. railroads are diesel-electric. No large, commercial U.S. railroads use steam locomotives. Steam locomotives are still used in a few parts of China and India.
Passenger and freight cars.
Railroad cars are grouped in two general categories, passenger cars and freight cars. Each car has a coupler at each end. This device links the cars together. Cars also have air brakes, which are connected to a master control in the locomotive (see Brake (Air brakes)).
On most passenger trains, the cars consist mainly of coaches. A typical coach has seats for 50 to 90 passengers. Double-deck coaches on commuter trains seat from 150 to 170 people. Some passenger-train cars, such as club cars or lounge cars, provide card tables, refreshments, or other services that are not generally available on coaches. Other passenger-train cars include baggage cars, dining cars, and sleeping cars.
Freight cars differ in shape and size according to the freight they are designed to haul. They range from boxcars for carrying general freight to specially designed cars for new automobiles. Many newer freight cars are longer and have been designed to carry different kinds of freight. For example, piggyback cars are flatcars designed to carry truck trailers.
Since the early 1980’s, railroads have eliminated cabooses, which once commonly served as the end cars on freight trains. Monitoring devices called end-of-train devices now perform duties once handled by crew members riding in the caboose.
Railroad companies are exploring the idea of integral trains for use in freight transport. An integral train consists of cars permanently coupled in units of various lengths. The train moves as a unit to its destination and back.
Railroads have greatly improved the safety of railroad cars over the years. One of the chief improvements has been to reduce the danger from overheated journal boxes, also called axle boxes. On older cars, each end of an axle turns on solid surfaces enclosed in an oil-filled journal box. On modern cars, the use of roller bearings rather than solid surfaces at the ends of axles has practically eliminated overheated axles, called “hotboxes.” Railroads have electronic devices called hotbox detectors installed at various points alongside railroad tracks. As trains pass by, the devices detect any hotboxes. This information is transmitted to a control station. The station radios the train crew to stop the train and to remove cars with hotboxes.
Railroad cars with built-in power units
do not need a locomotive. Such cars, sometimes called railcars, may be diesel-electric, electric, or gas-turbine electric.
Some railcars are equipped to carry passengers. These cars have seats and windows located behind the power unit. Some passenger railcars haul one or more passenger cars to form railcar trains. Well-known railcar trains include the Docklands Light Railway of London.
Some self-propelled cars are designed for use in railroad maintenance. Each carries equipment to do a particular job along a railroad line. For example, some have track-laying machinery or machinery for inspecting or repairing tracks. Others carry such equipment as snowplows or weed cutters.
Tracks.
The rails and crossties that make up railway track are laid along a roadbed—that is, land that has been prepared as a foundation for the track. The roadbed follows the route planned for a railroad. Mainline routes link major cities. Branch lines extend between main lines and various places not served by main lines, such as small communities or mining sites. Many main lines consist of two or more tracks laid side by side. Such multiple tracks enable trains to travel in opposite directions on the same line at the same time. Single-track lines must be equipped with sidings at various points along the route. A siding is a short track alongside a main or branch line to which one of two meeting trains is switched until the other train passes. 
The track and roadbed, together with such other railway structures as tunnels and bridges, are sometimes referred to as the roadway. In addition to the roadway, railways own a certain amount of land on both sides of the roadway. This land and the roadway make up a railroad’s right of way.
The crossties and rails.
Most crossties, or ties, are spaced about 21 inches (53 centimeters) apart. The ties average about 3,000 per mile (1,900 per kilometer). There are two types of ties—wood ties and concrete ties.
When wood ties are used, two steel tie plates are placed on top of each tie, one plate near each end of the tie. Each plate has a wide groove that is shaped to hold the bottom of the rail. Steel spikes are driven through holes in the plates. The spikes hook over the bottom of the rail and keep it firmly fastened to the tie.
Concrete ties do not have plates and spikes. Instead, plastic pads replace the plates, and two steel bolts with spring clips hold the base of the rail firmly to the tie.
The spikes or bolts must be the same distance apart on each tie so that they hold the rails the same distance apart all along the track. This uniform distance between rails is called the gauge. Every country has a standard gauge for all its main rail lines. Most countries also have this same standard gauge for most branch lines. In this way, any locomotive or car can travel on almost any track in the country. But the standard gauge varies from country to country. Australia, Canada, Mexico, the United States, and most European nations have a standard gauge of 4 feet 81/2 inches (1.44 meters).
In the United States, steel mills produce rails in 39-foot (12-meter) or 78-foot (24-meter) lengths. Little new track is laid, and so new rails are used mainly to replace existing track. Much existing track consists of 39-foot lengths of rail joined end to end by pieces of steel called joint bars or fishplates. The joint bars are fastened to the rails by bolts that pass through holes in the bars and in the sides of the rail.
Railroads in the United States have replaced most of the old short-length rail with new lengths of rail. A majority of this rail measures about 1/4 mile (0.4 kilometer) long. Shorter rail lengths are welded together to make the 1/4 -mile lengths. Welded rails have fewer gaps and so produce a smoother ride than do rails joined in many places. Such continuous rail is also easier for railroad work crews to maintain.
The roadbed and route.
In building a roadbed, civil engineers use special instruments and machinery to make the land as smooth and level as possible. This process is called grading. Most roadbeds are then covered with a layer of ballast, which consists of such materials as gravel or crushed stone. Ballast holds the ties in place and so helps keep the track stable. Ballast also helps distribute the weight of passing trains and gives them a degree of cushioning. Trains thus ride more easily than they would over bare ground. Ballast also promotes drainage of rain water and slows the growth of weeds.
Before constructing the roadbed, engineers plan a route with the least possible grade and curvature. Grade refers to the steepness of the land. Curvature refers to the number and sharpness of curves along the route. The ideal railroad route lies across perfectly flat land. Track laid along such a route has little or no grade or curvature. Freight trains can easily carry heavy loads along the track, and passenger trains can travel at top speed. Steep grades, on the other hand, make it difficult for a train to carry heavy loads or travel at a high speed. If a route passes through hilly or mountainous country, engineers lay track around steep grades instead of over them. The track thus has many curves. Curves reduce a train’s speed but do not prevent it from carrying heavy loads.
A route through a mountain range might require so many curves that travel along the route would be extremely slow. Engineers therefore sometimes build railroad tunnels through mountains. They also construct railroad bridges to span chasms and rivers. Tunnels and bridges are also built to extend railroad routes under or across bays and other bodies of water.
Freight operations
Freight trains are assembled in classification yards, also called sorting yards or marshaling yards, at various railroad terminals. A terminal may also have facilities for loading and unloading cars and for repairing locomotives and cars. After trains of freight cars arrive at a classification yard, the cars are sorted into groups according to their destinations. All the cars in a group must be headed for destinations along the same route or along branches of this route. After a locomotive has been coupled to such a group of cars, the cars become a freight train. Cars headed for destinations off the main route must be switched to other trains along the way.
In the past, railroad freight shipments frequently met long delays at classification yards. They also met delays at interchanges—that is, at rail junctions where cars are switched from one railroad to another.
To speed freight shipments, railroads have improved their freight-handling methods in three main ways. First, they have consolidated and modernized classification yards. Second, they have simplified the work performed at interchanges. Third, and perhaps most important, the railroads have developed computer systems for planning and monitoring their operations. In one such system, the computer generates a specific “trip plan” for each car. As the car moves in trains from its origin to its destination, its plan is checked continually to see that the car is moving on schedule. The shipper and the receiver of the car are then notified of the car’s delivery time.
At classification yards.
A classification yard consists mainly of a number of closely spaced parallel tracks. Each track is reserved for cars assigned to a particular route. Incoming trains approach the yard along a main track at one end. Newly assembled trains leave the yard along a main track at the other end. There are two chief types of classification yards: flat yards and hump yards.
Flat yards are the older type of classification yard. In these yards, switching locomotives haul cars from incoming trains onto the proper tracks, from which departing trains are made up. A switching locomotive must travel back and forth many times to make up a train. In addition, the track switches and car brakes in these yards are operated by hand. The work requires many employees and proceeds only as fast as the workers can do their jobs. As a result, classification often takes a long time.
Hump yards speed the work of classification. These yards make use of gravity. In hump yards, switching locomotives push incoming trains along a single track to the top of a low hill, or hump. On the other side of the hump, the track branches out into a number of classification tracks. As each car reaches the top of the hump, it is uncoupled and the proper track switches are opened. Devices called retarders control the car’s speed, and the car rolls down the hump onto its assigned track. The retarders regulate a car’s speed so that it meets the other cars on its track with just enough force to engage its coupler. Operators in a control tower use computers to control most of the yard operations.
At interchanges.
Automated hump yards help speed interchange by preblocking cars on a freight train—that is, by arranging all the cars on the train into groups according to their final destination. Cars on such a block train do not have to be reclassified at interchanges or yards. 
Unit trains further reduce the number of switchings or eliminate switching entirely. Unit trains have a single type of freight car loaded with a single type of freight, such as coal or wheat. The cars all have the same destination and remain together until they reach it. Many unit trains make regular nonstop runs between the same two terminals—for example, between a coal mine and an electric power plant. Some unit trains change or add locomotives when they change from one rail line to another.
Trains of flatcars carrying highway trailers or freight containers are called intermodal trains. Such trains require their own specialized yards. Special flatcars carry containers stacked two high. Heavy forklifts or other lifting machines pick up the containers and trailers. Trucks carry the containers between the yard and their final destinations over highways. Use of containers greatly speeds freight movement.
Traffic control
Railroads use signals and various other means to control train traffic. The chief purpose of traffic control is to prevent accidents. But it also helps make railroad operations speedier and more efficient.
Most railroad signals consist of colored lights alongside or over the track. Each color has a different meaning. For example, red means stop, and green means proceed. Yellow alerts the train to reduce speed, to stop at the next signal, or to maintain a lower speed.
The signals and other means a railroad uses to control traffic are part of its signal system. Most railroads have adopted some form of the block signal system. This system is designed chiefly to keep a safe distance between trains traveling on the same track. In block signal systems, a railroad line is divided into lengths of track called blocks. Most blocks range from 1 to 2 miles (1.6 to 3.2 kilometers) long. Only one train may be in a block at a time. Colored-light signals control entry to the block. When a train is in the block, the signals warn other trains to stop. No train may proceed from one block to the next without an all-clear signal. Block signals may be either automatic or manual (hand-operated).
Automatic block signal systems
are the most common type of block systems used today. In an automatic block system, the signals are operated by an electric current, also called a track circuit, that flows through the rails. A train entering a block short-circuits this current, causing the signal that guards the block to turn red. As soon as the train leaves the block, the signal returns to yellow, meaning “all clear.” Many automatic block systems also have interlocking controls. Interlocking controls set multiple track switches at one time to ensure a safe path for the train to follow through complex junctions.
A remotely controlled signal system is called Centralized Traffic Control (CTC). Signals and switches on the line are controlled from a central dispatch station. This station has one or more electronic diagrams that show the present location of every train on a line. CTC operators study the diagrams to decide how to route the trains as safely, speedily, and efficiently as possible. The operators direct train traffic by setting the necessary signals and switches. Modern forms of CTC, with advanced computers and safety systems, are referred to as centralized dispatching. Such dispatching makes it possible for railroads to use single tracks efficiently for two-way traffic. If two trains are headed toward one another on the same track, a dispatcher switches one of the trains to a siding until the other passes. CTC also makes use of interlocking controls.
In the United States, the federal government requires automatic block systems on all tracks where passenger trains travel at 60 mph (97 kph) and over and where freight trains travel at 50 mph (80 kph) and over.
Manual block signal systems
require operators at various points along the line to control the signals. Each operator is responsible for the movement of trains within one or two blocks and informs other operators by telephone whether a block is occupied or clear. The possibility of human error makes manual signal systems less reliable than automatic systems.
Some manual block systems have interlocking controls. These controls ensure that switches in complex combinations can only be set safely. They also give signals to approaching trains to prevent derailment or collision.
Other train controls.
Many railroads are experimenting with advanced train control systems, also known as positive train control, to improve safety and efficiency. In addition to signal lights alongside their tracks, some railroads have signals providing the same information on panels in their locomotives. These signals may also work in connection with safety devices. One such device is the automatic train stop (ATS). The ATS puts on a train’s brakes automatically if the engineer fails to notice a stop signal. Another safety device, called automatic train control (ATC), automatically controls a train’s speed. If the engineer fails to notice a caution signal, the ATC puts on the brakes to slow the train to the required speed. The device also stops the train if necessary.
Many railroads use advanced communications systems to help control the movement of trains. Two-way radio systems on trains enable crew members to communicate from one end of the train to the other. Train crews also use two-way radio systems to communicate with distant dispatching centers. Railroads trace the exact locations of their trains and of individual cars by using transponders (electronic transmitting devices) as tags. Track-side equipment sends and then receives radio signals from the transponders. Satellite-based tracking of trains using the Global Positioning System (GPS) also helps railroads improve train control (see Global Positioning System).
Railroad systems
In the United States.
The United States has about 450 railroad companies. All but two of the major railroad companies are owned by private investors. The exceptions are the Alaska Railroad Corporation, which is owned by the Alaska state government, and Amtrak, a passenger railroad financed by the U.S. government.
Categories of railroads.
The federal government categorizes (classes) U.S. railroads as either line-haul or switching and terminal. Line-haul companies own the nation’s main rail lines. Switching and terminal companies own tracks and other facilities in and around certain large railroad stations and classification yards. The largest U.S. line-haul companies in terms of miles of track operated include BNSF (Burlington Northern Santa Fe) Railway Company; CSX Transportation Inc.; Norfolk Southern Railway Company; and Union Pacific Railroad Company.
The United States government further classifies railroads according to operating revenue (money earned from operations). Companies whose operating revenue is $250 million or more a year are Class I railroads. Only a few line-haul companies and Amtrak fall in this group. Firms with operating revenue between $20 million and $250 million are Class II railroads. Companies whose operating revenue is less than $20 million are Class III railroads. Some Class II and Class III railroads are owned by Class I railroads. Some Class I railroads are owned by conglomerates. Many Class I railroads have resulted from the merger (union) of smaller railroads.
Many railroads have been formed from line segments sold by other railroads because they were unprofitable. They include short line railroads, which have from a few to several hundred miles or kilometers of track, and larger companies called regional railroads.
Cooperation among railroads.
The Association of American Railroads, an organization sponsored by the railroads, deals with matters of concern to the entire industry. Its membership includes railroads in Canada and Mexico as well as in the United States.
Railroad companies also cooperate with one another in various other ways. For example, most U.S. rail routes are owned by separate companies. Much of the freight traffic handled by a railroad originates on lines owned by other companies. In the past, every company required that its own locomotives and train crews be used on all trains run on its tracks. Today, a number of railroads share the use of their lines. Each of these companies operates run-through trains over lines owned by the other companies. A run-through train changes only its crew when it moves to another line.
Railroad workers
range from dispatchers and switch operators to salespeople and clerks. Many railroad jobs require training in electronics, computer operations, marketing, and other fields.
Perhaps the best-known railroad jobs are those of the train crew. Most crews consist of a conductor to supervise the train’s operation, an engineer to run the locomotive, and possibly a brakeman to uncouple cars and do various other tasks. In the days of steam locomotives, a fireman tended the locomotive boiler.
Rail unions.
United States railroad workers belong to about 15 different labor unions. One of the most important is the United Transportation Union. Some of the unions include only railroad workers, but others also include workers in other industries. The Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, founded in 1863, is the oldest labor union in the United States. Over the years, the rail unions and the railroads have agreed to certain work rules. Unions have generally opposed changing most work rules, but they have agreed to change certain rules to improve safety. The Railway Labor Act, passed by Congress in 1926, establishes the rules for settling railroad labor disputes (see Railway Labor Act).
The role of the federal government.
The Surface Transportation Board (STB), an independent government body, regulates some of the economic activities of railroads in the United States. For example, a railroad must receive board approval to merge with another railroad. The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) sets railroad safety standards and inspects locomotives, cars, tracks, and signal systems. Both the FRA and the STB are part of the United States Department of Transportation. Amtrak operates as a semipublic corporation partly financed by the federal government. The Department of Transportation and Amtrak work with Congress and local governments to decide Amtrak’s routes and the number of trains on each route.
Railroad finances.
The federal government provides less financial aid for railroads than for any other form of transportation. In 1980, deregulation of U.S. railroads began, and many pricing controls were removed. Since that time, the major railroads have become profitable.
The railroads have become more competitive with other forms of transportation. Many railroads have speeded up freight shipments and improved service by operating container trains and unit trains. Railroads have also increased their ability to handle a variety of freight. They earn much of their income by hauling bulk cargoes, such as coal and grain. But many railroads have redesigned equipment so that they can handle more manufactured goods. The use of freight cars designed to carry new automobiles has proved especially successful. The railroads’ share of new-automobile shipments has risen from about 10 percent in the 1950’s to about 50 percent today. Manufactured goods account for a growing share of freight railroad income.
In Canada.
Canada has two major freight railway systems. One system, Canadian National Railway Company (CN), is publicly owned. The other system, Canadian Pacific Railway Company (CPR), is owned by a conglomerate, Canadian Pacific Limited. Canadian Pacific Limited has announced plans to make CPR an independent, publicly owned company by the end of 2001. Both systems own and operate extensive rail lines across the southern half of Canada. CN has a line as far north as the Northwest Territories. Both systems also operate lines in the United States. Canada’s major passenger railway is VIA Rail Canada, a government-funded company. A number of smaller, privately owned railroads also operate in Canada. 
Two agencies of the Canadian government—Transport Canada and the Canadian Transportation Agency—regulate Canadian railways. These agencies operate within the Ministry of Transport, Infrastructure, and Communities. They set and enforce rail safety standards and make decisions on requests by railroads to drop unprofitable schedules or abandon unprofitable track.
In other countries.
Most countries have a single national rail system, which the government owns and operates. Some countries have a number of small, privately owned railroads in addition to the national railroad.
Most of the world’s railroads make little or no profit. In most countries, the government provides the additional funds needed to keep the railroads running. These governments believe the services the railroads provide are worth the additional money. Other governments have privatized their railroads—that is, they have sold them to private companies.
In Latin America.
Mexico has a large railroad network. It is made up of several privately owned companies. Some Central American countries have short lines that operate in coastal regions. Railroads in Peru and Bolivia were originally built to carry materials mined from the Andes Mountains. The railroads are the world’s highest, rising to nearly 19,700 feet (6,000 meters) above sea level. Argentina’s railroad system links to those of Uruguay and Paraguay. The vast majority of Brazil’s extensive railroad system is less than 300 miles (500 meters) from the coast.
In Australia and New Zealand.
Australia’s main-line rail systems were all publicly owned until the late 1900’s, but many are now privately owned. Many lines use the standard gauge of 4 feet 81/2 inches (1.44 meters). However, other lines, such as those that operate in Queensland’s sugar plantations, use other gauges. New Zealand’s private system of railroads uses a gauge of 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 meters). Ferries carry rail vehicles between the North and South Islands.
In Asia.
China’s railroad system is concentrated in the densely populated eastern part of the country. The system includes the longest high-speed rail service in the world. This service stretches about 1,200 miles (1,900 kilometers) from the northeastern capital of Beijing to Guangzhou, a major city in the southeast. Because China has little of the petroleum needed to run diesel locomotives, it has historically operated mainly steam locomotives. Many modern Chinese trains are electric. In India, millions of people ride passenger trains every day. The railroad system is important to the support of India’s tremendous freight traffic. Most of India’s trains run on a gauge of track 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 meters) wide. In Japan, a higher percentage of people ride the train daily than in any other country. Many trains run on a gauge of 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 meters). The country’s high-speed Shinkansen—also known as “bullet trains”—travel on standard-gauge track. 
In Europe,
most countries use standard-gauge track. The exceptions are Finland and Russia, which use a gauge of 5 feet (1.52 meters), and Spain and Portugal, which use a gauge of 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 meters).
European governments typically operate the railroad systems. Many European railroads cooperate to improve train service between countries, and a number of trains move freely across national boundaries. Several European countries, including France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom, operate high-speed trains. Such trains also carry passengers and freight between the United Kingdom and France through the Channel Tunnel.
In Africa.
South Africa has Africa’s best railroad system. The system primarily handles freight, but it has many passenger trains, including the famous Blue Train. The system operates on a gauge of 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 meters). It links to a line in Namibia and to one in Zimbabwe through Botswana. A good network of tracks links parts of northern Africa. Rail lines in other parts of the continent are mainly single-track routes that are used to ship freight from mines and farms to seaports that handle international trade.
History
Several European countries had a few primitive railroads as early as the mid-1500’s. But they were used mainly to bring up wagonloads of coal or iron ore from underground mines. The mining railroads consisted of two wooden rails that extended down into the mines and across the mine floors. Laborers or horses pulled wagons with flanged wheels—that is, wheels made with a protective rim—along the rails. The wagons moved more easily along the rails than they did over the rutted or muddy entrances and floors of the mines.
In the early 1700’s, English coal-mining companies began building short wooden railroads to carry coal aboveground as well as underground. Horses pulled the trains of wagons along the rails. In the mid-1700’s, workers began nailing strips of iron to the wooden rails to make them last longer. English ironmakers also began making all-iron rails. The rails were flanged to carry wagons with ordinary wheels. By the end of the 1700’s, ironmakers were producing all-iron rails without flanges. These all-iron rails carried wagons with flanged wheels.
Invention of the locomotive.
Meanwhile, inventors had been developing the steam engine. About 1800, the English inventor Richard Trevithick experimented with the first engines capable of using high-pressure steam. He mounted one of the engines on a four-wheeled undercarriage designed to roll along a track. In 1804, Trevithick used this vehicle to pull 10 tons (9 metric tons) of iron, 70 men, and 5 wagons along 91/2 miles (15 kilometers) of track. Trevithick’s invention thus became the world’s first successful railroad locomotive. Soon, other English inventors had also built successful locomotives.
An English railway engineer named George Stephenson constructed the world’s first public railroad, the Stockton and Darlington, which opened in 1825. The line operated between the towns of Stockton and Darlington, a distance of about 20 miles (32 kilometers). It was the first railroad to run steam freight trains on a regular schedule. Stephenson’s second railroad opened in 1830. It ran 30 miles (48 kilometers) from Liverpool to Manchester. It was the first railroad to run steam passenger trains on a regular schedule.
Stephenson also originated the idea that a country’s railroads should all have a standard gauge. The gauge he selected for the railroads he built—4 feet 81/2 inches (1.44 meters)—corresponded to the length of the axles on many horse-drawn wagons. This gauge was eventually adopted by most European railroads and then by railroads in other parts of the world.
Developments in the United States.
A few horse-powered railroads began operating in the eastern United States in the early 1800’s. In 1815, an American engineer named John Stevens obtained a charter from the state of New Jersey to build a steam-powered railroad across the state. Although Stevens could not raise enough money for this project, he still wanted to apply steam locomotion to railway track. He constructed a circular track near his estate in Hoboken, New Jersey, and built a small steam-powered wagon to run on it. In 1825, this vehicle made a successful run.
In the late 1820’s, the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company of Pennsylvania decided to build a railroad. In 1829, the company ran an English-built locomotive along a section of wooden track. This locomotive, called the Stourbridge Lion, became the first full-sized locomotive to run on a track in North America. 
In 1830, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad began service over 13 miles (21 kilometers) of track between Baltimore and Ellicott’s Mills (now Ellicott City). The railroad’s first cars were drawn by horses. These horse-powered cars were the first railroad cars in the United States to carry passengers. The Baltimore and Ohio also experimented with a car equipped with sails. In the summer of 1830, New York manufacturer Peter Cooper built a steam-powered locomotive, later called the Tom Thumb, for the Baltimore and Ohio. But it was too small for regular service. In 1831, the railroad began regular passenger service with a locomotive called the York.
Meanwhile, the West Point Foundry of New York had built a steam locomotive for the South Carolina Canal and Railroad Company. In 1830, this locomotive, called the Best Friend of Charleston, pulled a train of cars along 6 miles (10 kilometers) of track. This event marked the first run of a steam-powered train in the United States. The Best Friend began making regular runs between Charleston and Hamburg, South Carolina, in 1831. The South Carolina Canal and Railroad Company thus became the first U.S. railroad to provide regular steam-powered passenger and freight service.
The number of locomotives and railroads multiplied rapidly in the United States after 1830. Historic first runs of locomotives included those of the De Witt Clinton on the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad in New York in 1831; the John Bull on the Camden and Amboy Railroad in New Jersey in 1831; Old Ironsides on the Philadelphia, Germantown, and Norristown Railroad in Pennsylvania in 1832; and the Pontchartrain on the Pontchartrain Railway in Louisiana in 1832. By 1835, more than 200 railroad charters had been granted in 11 states, and over 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) of track had been laid.
Meanwhile, builders were developing locomotives especially suited to the eastern United States, where roadbeds had many curves. These locomotives had an independent wheeled undercarriage called a leading truck. The leading truck was attached to the locomotive by a center pin, which allowed the truck to swivel. A truck gave a locomotive more flexibility on curves. Most of the new locomotives had a four-wheeled truck and four driving wheels. These eight-wheeled locomotives, known as the American-type, became the most popular type of U.S. locomotive during the second half of the 1800’s.
Canada’s first steam-powered railway,
the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad, was started in the province of Quebec. The line opened for business as a horse-powered railroad in July 1836, and began steam-powered service later that year. The railway operated between the towns of Laprairie and Saint-Jean, a distance of about 16 miles (26 kilometers). Other small railroads began operating in Canada soon after 1836.
Expansion in the United States.
Railroads were under construction in all states east of the Mississippi River by 1850. Most of the lines were concentrated in the Northeast, and many of them ran only short distances. A network of lines radiated from Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia. Railroads also linked cities in the Southeast.
Competition for trade spurred railroad construction in the East. By the early 1850’s, four railroads had built rail lines that enabled them to haul freight between the Great Lakes region and the East Coast. New York’s Erie Railroad opened between Piermont and Dunkirk on Lake Erie in 1851. In 1853, 10 small railroads along the Erie Canal merged to form the New York Central Railroad, which provided service between Albany and Buffalo. By 1852, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Baltimore and Ohio had opened lines to the Ohio River, one of the most important trade routes in the country. The large railroads took over many smaller lines and so expanded rapidly.
During the 1850’s, railroad lines connected Chicago with the Mississippi River, which was a major trade route. The Baltimore and Ohio reached St. Louis on the Mississippi in 1857. Both Chicago and St. Louis thrived as transportation centers.
In 1850, Congress began granting federal land to develop railroads. Government leaders knew that railroads would help attract settlers to undeveloped regions of the Midwest and the South. The railroad companies kept some of the land for right of way and sold the rest to help pay railroad construction costs. The first grant helped build the Illinois Central Railroad from the Great Lakes at Chicago to Cairo, Illinois. Settlers poured into the area along the route after the railroad’s completion. The success of the experiment persuaded Congress to grant federal lands for railroad development in the western United States. In return, all U.S. railroads agreed to carry government troops and property at half the standard rates and United States mail at four-fifths the standard rates. These rates remained in effect until the mid-1940’s. 
The railroads continued to expand during the 1860’s. They played a major role in the American Civil War (1861-1865) by moving troops and supplies to battle. The South was at a disadvantage because it had far fewer railroad tracks and locomotives than the North had. After the war, iron and steel railroad bridges were built across such major rivers as the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Missouri. 
The first transcontinental rail lines.
In the early 1860’s, the United States government decided to extend rail lines across the country. The proposed route roughly followed the 42nd parallel from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento, California. Eastern rail lines were to be extended westward from Chicago to meet the new railroad at Omaha. Congress passed the Pacific Railroad Act in 1862. The act gave two companies responsibility for building the railroad. The Union Pacific was to start laying track westward from a point near Omaha. The Central Pacific Railroad was to lay track eastward from Sacramento. Congress granted both railroads large tracts of land and millions of dollars in government loans.
Work began on the Central Pacific track in 1863 and on the Union Pacific in 1865. The railroads faced the gigantic task of crossing the rugged Rockies and the towering Sierra Nevada. To obtain skilled labor, the Central Pacific hired thousands of Chinese immigrants to work on the railroad. Thousands of European immigrants and former Civil War soldiers worked on the Union Pacific. On May 10, 1869, the tracks of the two railroads finally met at Promontory, Utah. North America became the first continent to have a rail line from coast to coast.
By the end of the 1800’s, the United States had five transcontinental rail lines. The Canadian Pacific Railway completed Canada’s first transcontinental line in 1885. It extended from Montreal, Quebec, to Vancouver, British Columbia. The completion of these rail lines opened vast regions of the continent to town development, farming, and trade.
Worldwide development.
Railroad building spread rapidly, first in England and then throughout Europe. By 1870, most of Europe’s major rail systems had been built. Other lines were built in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Some of these lines required that tunnels be blasted through the Alps to connect France, Switzerland, and Italy. The Orient Express, one of the most famous European passenger trains, began operation between Paris, France, and Istanbul, Turkey, in 1883.
As they had done for the western United States, railroads opened up other parts of the world to development and trade. Argentina and Brazil developed rapidly after they built extensive rail networks in the late 1800’s. Railroads were also built across South America’s towering Andes Mountains. One such railroad, the Central Railway of Peru, was begun in 1870. It is the world’s highest standard-gauge railroad, climbing to more than 3 miles (5 kilometers) above sea level.
Also in the late 1800’s, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom built railroads in their African and Asian colonies. The United Kingdom, for example, helped construct nearly 25,000 miles (40,200 kilometers) of railroad track in India during the late 1800’s. Russia started work on its 5,600-mile (9,000-kilometer) Trans-Siberian railroad in 1891 and completed it in 1916. The Trans-Siberian is the world’s longest continuous railroad line. Australia started building a railroad across its southern plains in 1912. The line, completed in 1917, extends 1,108 miles (1,783 kilometers) from Port Pirie to Kalgoorlie.
Engineering improvements.
Beginning about the 1870’s, railroads started to use steel for rails and cars. Steel rails last up to 20 times longer than iron rails, and so they gradually replaced iron rails. Early freight and passenger cars were made largely of wood. All-steel passenger cars were first put into regular service in 1907 and gradually replaced most wooden cars. All-steel freight cars had replaced most wooden freight cars by the late 1920’s.
Several important inventions after the mid-1800’s helped improve railroad safety. In 1869, the American inventor George Westinghouse patented a railroad air brake. The brake automatically stopped a train if air pressure was lost. In 1873, an American amateur inventor named Eli Janney patented an automatic car coupler. Before Janney’s invention, coupling had to be done manually. Many brakemen and switchmen lost fingers or hands while coupling cars. But fail-safe air brakes and automatic couplers were not widely used until after 1893. That year, Congress passed the Railroad Safety Appliance Act, which required air brakes and automatic couplers on all trains.
The building of electric telegraph lines in the mid-1800’s made block signaling possible. Manual block systems became common before the end of the 1800’s. American engineer William Robinson patented the track circuit used in automatic block signaling in 1872. In 1887, American inventor Granville T. Woods patented an induction telegraph. This system allowed communication between stations and moving trains by sending a signal through the track.
Meanwhile, more and more people traveled by train. The railroads themselves did much to attract passengers. In 1867, an American businessman named George Pullman organized the Pullman Palace Car Company. The company manufactured a sleeping car that Pullman had designed. Other sleeping cars were already in use, but Pullman’s car improved greatly on the others. By 1875, about 700 Pullman sleeping cars were in service. Railroads also introduced luxurious parlor cars and elegant dining cars.
Designers gradually increased the power and speed of steam locomotives. By the 1890’s, many trains easily reached speeds of 50 to 70 mph (80 to 113 kph). In 1893, a train pulled by the American steam locomotive called No. 999 was the first to exceed 100 miles (160 kilometers) per hour.
In 1879, Werner von Siemens, a German inventor, introduced the first functional electric train. In 1895, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad became the first U.S. railroad to provide electric mainline service. It operated an electric train through a 31/2-mile (5.6-kilometer) tunnel under the city of Baltimore. Many European railroads electrified their main lines after 1900. But almost all U.S. railroads continued to use steam locomotives.
Regulation and control of U.S railroads.
A financial panic in 1873 cut deeply into the profits of U.S. railroads. Financial leaders battled for control of the richest companies. Dishonest promoters made fortunes selling worthless railroad stock. The companies themselves fought bitterly for freight business. Some railroads combined to eliminate competition and raise prices, also called rates. Others offered bargain rates to favored shippers. These and other unfair practices led Congress to pass the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887. The act set up guidelines to regulate competition between railroads and to ensure reasonable railroad rates. The act also established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). For more information, see Interstate commerce (The Interstate Commerce Act).
The United States entered World War I in 1917. In December 1917, the federal government took over wartime control of U.S. railroads. The war ended in November 1918, but the government kept control of the railroads until after Congress passed the Esch-Cummins Act of 1920. This legislation, also called the Transportation Act, increased the ICC’s control over railroad rates. It also encouraged railroads to merge if mergers would increase their operating efficiency. The government returned the railroads to private control in March 1920.
The 1920’s and the Great Depression.
Railroads in the United States made record profits during the 1920’s. Up to 80 percent of long-distance freight and passengers moved by rail. But there were signs of approaching trouble. Automobiles, buses, and trucks began carrying traffic once carried by trains. Disputes with labor also troubled the railroads during the early 1920’s. The Railroad Shopmen’s strike of 1922 was one of the largest strikes in U.S. history. Labor disputes led Congress to pass the Railway Labor Act in 1926. The act set up means to settle disputes.
Like most other industries, the railroads lost huge sums of money during the Great Depression of the 1930’s. Many companies went into bankruptcy. But others spent large sums of money to win back passenger business with sleek, new diesel-electric trains.
Diesel-electric locomotives were more fuel-efficient and much easier to maintain than steam locomotives. The first commercial diesel-electric locomotive in the United States began service in 1925. It was used as a switch engine. The stainless steel Zephyr, the world’s first streamlined passenger train powered by a diesel-electric locomotive, began regular service on the Burlington railroad in 1934. It traveled between Denver and Chicago and could maintain an average speed of 78 mph (125 kph). No other train had ever maintained so high a speed over such a long, nonstop run. Also in 1934, a streamlined, aluminum-bodied passenger train, the Union Pacific’s City of Salina, began operation. Other railroads soon put diesel trains into service. These trains included the Santa Fe’s Super Chief and the New York, New Haven, and Hartford’s Comet. The Santa Fe put the first regularly scheduled diesel-electric freight trains into service in 1940. 
Economic recovery—and decline.
After the United States entered World War II in 1941, the nation’s railroads handled more traffic than ever before. Rubber and gasoline rationing limited highway travel. Passenger and freight trains ran day and night, and almost every train was packed to capacity. During the war, the government left the railroads under private control. 
After the war ended in 1945, railroads in many countries faced financial difficulties. Much railroad equipment was nearly worn out from overuse. During the late 1940’s and early 1950’s, the world’s railroads spent billions of dollars to replace worn-out equipment. At the same time, they faced serious competition from other forms of transportation. In the 1950’s, most industrialized countries phased out steam locomotives in favor of more economical diesel-electric models. 
In 1958, Congress passed legislation enabling railroads to discontinue hundreds of unprofitable passenger runs. But some railroads continued to lose money during the 1960’s.
Until 1970, the U.S. government required U.S. railroads to provide intercity passenger service even though most passenger trains lost money year after year. To relieve the railroads of this financial burden, the government formed Amtrak in 1970. This semipublic corporation, partly financed by the federal government, took over the operation of almost all U.S. intercity passenger trains in 1971 (see Amtrak).
Although the formation of Amtrak helped U.S. railroad companies reduce their losses, the financial condition of some railroads—especially those in the Northeast—continued to worsen. The Railroad Reorganization Act of 1973 was designed to help reverse the huge losses of several railroads and to guarantee continued rail service. In 1976, six bankrupt Northeastern railroads were reorganized by the federal government as a private corporation called the Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail). At first, the federal government was Conrail’s chief stockholder, but the government sold its stock to private investors in 1987.
Railroads today.
In 1980, Congress passed the Staggers Rail Act, which was designed to help railroads increase their profits. The law greatly reduced regulation of prices and various other aspects of railroad operations. It helped railroads become more competitive with other forms of transportation, and the financial health of major U.S. railroads improved dramatically in the 1990’s. During the 1990’s, railroad services were privatized in many countries to improve competition and profitability. Mexico, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. were among the countries that had railroad services transferred from public to private control.
In 1998, the U.S. government authorized the breakup of Conrail, which had by that time become profitable. CSX Corporation and Norfolk Southern Corporation purchased Conrail’s holdings.
Australia completed a north-south transcontinental railroad in 2003. The line extends 1,851 miles (2,979 kilometers), from Adelaide in South Australia to Darwin in the Northern Territory.
Today, many people view railroads as essential to relieving highway traffic congestion. Many also point out the environmental benefits of trains, which produce a much lower amount of pollution per traveler than automobiles do. Some railroads are looking to high-speed trains to replace airplanes for travel over distances up to about 500 miles (800 kilometers).
