Scandinavian literature consists of the literature of the Scandinavian countries—Denmark, Norway, and Sweden—and of two countries often included as Scandinavian, Finland and Iceland. Scandinavian writers have produced outstanding works of literature for over 1,000 years. For the social and political background of Scandinavian literature, see the articles on these countries.
Beginnings.
Early Scandinavian literature developed from oral tales and poems passed down from generation to generation for several hundred years. Some poems about the lives of the upper classes in the Viking Age might date from the A.D. 800’s (see Vikings).
During the 1200’s, oral ballads became popular, especially in Denmark and Sweden. The ballads praised the deeds of heroes, told tragic stories, and described encounters between human beings and magical creatures. Many oral poems were collected in the Icelandic Poetic Edda. Most of the poems narrate the traditions of the Norse gods, Norse mythology, and the legend of a royal family called the Volsungs.
From 1100 to 1300, lengthy stories called sagas were written. Sagas tell of heroic adventures and the lives of chieftains. Njal’s Saga, by an unknown author, resembles a historical novel. It describes a violent feud between two families. Icelander Snorri Sturluson’s The Heimskringla (early 1200’s) is the most comprehensive history of the Norwegian kings who reigned before the 1200’s.
During the Reformation, the Bible was translated into Swedish and Danish. Latin previously had been the language of learned authors in Scandinavia. But in the 1500’s, churches encouraged hymns to be written in native languages. Hymns written by the Dane Thomas Kingo and the Norwegian Petter Dass in the 1600’s are still used.
The 1700’s.
Two trends dominated Scandinavian literature during the 1700’s. First, writers became more secular and more interested in the everyday life of common people. For example, the Swedish poet Carl Michael Bellman wrote about rowdy life in the taverns of Stockholm, Sweden. Second, Scandinavian theater also grew in importance. Ludvig Holberg, Scandinavia’s first major playwright, became famous for his witty comedies, such as Jeppe of the Hill and Erasmus Montanus. Johannes Ewald, a Dane, won praise for his tragedies.
The Golden Age.
Scandinavia, Finland, and Iceland produced many outstanding works that are still considered classics in the literary traditions of the 1800’s, known as the Golden Age. Most writers of this time were influenced by two literary movements— Romanticism in the early and mid-1800’s, and Realism in the latter third of the century.
There are three trends in Scandinavian Romanticism. First, many Romantic writers emphasized imagination, emotion, and the glory of the past. They included the poets Adam Oehlenschläger and Nicolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig of Denmark, Esaias Tegnér of Sweden, and Henrik Arnold Wergeland of Norway.
Second, many Romantics were interested in folklore as a way to express the national identity of the various countries. Elias Lönnrot of Finland used his country’s ancient myths and legends to form the epic poem The Kalevala (1835). Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, both of Norway, published Norwegian folk tales that have become world famous, such as “The Three Billy Goats Gruff.” The Kalevala and the works of Asbjørnsen and Moe were part of projects to bring together the common folktales of their respective national traditions. Hans Christian Andersen of Denmark is perhaps an exception to this national focus. Andersen wrote fairy tales and stories, such as “The Little Mermaid,” “Thumbelina,” and “The Emperor’s New Clothes.” His works explored the good and the evil of the human soul.
Third, other Romantic writers praised rural life, encouraging people to view rural life as the most authentic expression of a national culture. In the novel Seven Brothers (1870), Aleksis Kivi of Finland portrayed the lives of peasants. Norwegian Bjornstjerne Bjornson wrote about country life in novels, including Synnove Solbakken. Jøn Thóroddsen of Iceland examined the lives of Icelandic farmers in several novels.
A more realistic approach to writing began in the second half of the 1800’s. Such writers as the Swedish novelist Carol Jonas Love Almqvist and the Icelandic poet Jónas Hallgrímsson tried to break down what they considered to be falsely positive images of the home and family. Their works criticized society and what passed for normal behavior.
The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard wrote about conflicts between people’s wants and desires and their duty to their community or society. His writings helped to define what is now recognized as the philosophy called Existentialism. Plays by the Norwegian Henrik Ibsen and the Swede August Strindberg greatly influenced modern Western drama. In A Doll’s House (1879) and An Enemy of the People (1883), Ibsen addressed the conflict between society and the individual. Strindberg attacked social customs in such plays as The Father (1887) and Miss Julie (1889). In his later plays, he helped develop the literary movement called Expressionism.
The modern period in Scandinavian literature
began in the 1890’s and included both Realistic and Neoromantic writings. Neoromanticism was a reaction against realism and naturalism. Neoromantic writers avoided discussing social problems and often wrote about unspoiled nature, young love, and psychological issues such as the challenges of urbanization facing the individual.
The Norwegian author Knut Hamsun wrote about people who rejected society in the novels Hunger (1890) and Pan (1894). The Dane Martin Andersen Nexø’s monumental epic Pelle the Conqueror (1906-1910) praises the early labor movement. Selma Lagerlöf of Sweden and Sigrid Undset of Norway revived the historical novel. Lagerlöf’s Gösta Berling’s Saga (1891) relates the adventures of a boastful young man and his companions. Undset’s trilogy Kristin Lavransdatter (1920-1922) explores the life of a Norwegian woman of the 1300’s.
Danish author Karen Blixen, who wrote under the name of Isak Dinesen, described her years in Kenya in Out of Africa (1937). She created complex, mysterious tales in such collections as Seven Gothic Tales (1934) and Winter’s Tales (1942). A poor Icelandic fishing community is the subject of Salka Valka (1931-1932) by Halldór K. Laxness of Iceland. In the play The Hangman (1933) and the novel The Dwarf (1944), Pär Fabian Lagerkvist of Sweden describes the cruelty he saw in life.
In the late 1900’s, writers who dealt with feminist issues became prominent. Among them were Sweden’s Sara Lidman, Denmark’s Dea Trier Mørch, Finland’s Märta Tikkanen, Iceland’s Svava Jacobsdóttir, and Norway’s Herbjørg Wassmo. In her fictional work Egalia’s Daughters: A Satire of the Sexes (1977), Norwegian author Gerd Brantenberg reversed the traditional gender roles, making women the dominant sex. The book is representative of the questions Scandinavian authors were posing about the way gender attitudes have developed.
Several writers emerged during the late 1900’s and early 2000’s. They included the novelist Jan Kjærstad of Norway; the novelist Peter Høeg of Denmark; and the poet Tomas Tranströmer, the novelist Lena Andersson, and the novelist and playwright Jonas Gardell of Sweden. Norwegian author Karl Ove Knausgaard gained international attention for his six-volume autobiographical novel Min kamp (My Struggle) (2009-2011).
Crime fiction became an especially popular genre in Scandinavia. The most popular crime fiction authors include Henning Mankell of Sweden, Jo Nesbø of Norway, Leena Lehtolainen of Finland, and Arnaldur Indriðason of Iceland. Swedish author Stieg Larsson’s “Millennium” trilogy (2005-2007) brought widespread international attention to Scandinavian crime fiction.
