Sociology is the study of the individuals, groups, and institutions that make up human society. The field of sociology covers an extremely broad range that includes every aspect of human social life. Sociologists observe and record how people relate to one another and to their environments. They also study the formation of groups; the causes of various forms of social behavior; and the role of churches, schools, and other institutions within a society. Sociology is a social science and is closely related to anthropology, psychology, and other social sciences.
Most sociological studies deal with the predominant attitudes, behavior, and types of relationships within a society. A society is a group of people who have a similar cultural background and live in a specific geographical area. Each society has a social structure—that is, a network of interrelationships among individuals and groups. Sociologists study these various relationships in order to determine their effect on the overall function of the society.
Sociological data can also help explain the causes of crime, poverty, and other social problems. The field of applied sociology deals with the use of this knowledge to develop solutions for such problems.
Sociologists formulate theories based on observations of various aspects of society. They use scientific methods to test these theories, but few sociological studies can be conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions. Nevertheless, in many studies, sociologists can achieve results that are nearly as precise as those achieved through the use of laboratory methods.
What sociologists study
Many elements determine the general social conditions of a society. These elements can be classified into five major areas: (1) population characteristics, (2) social behavior, (3) social institutions, (4) cultural influences, and (5) social change.
Population characteristics
determine the general social patterns of a group of people living within a certain geographical area. There are two chief kinds of population studies, demography and human ecology.
Demography is the systematic study of the size, composition, and distribution of human populations. Demographers compile and analyze various statistics, including people’s ages, birth and death rates, marriage rates, ethnic backgrounds, and migration patterns. Many demographic studies explain the effects of social conditions on the size and composition of a population. For example, several studies of the 1900’s found a direct correspondence between the growth of science, medicine, and industry and a decline in the death rate.
Human ecology deals mainly with the structure of urban environments and their patterns of settlement and growth. Studies in human ecology explain why and how cities and other communities grow and change.
Social behavior
is studied extensively in the field of sociology. Social psychologists usually work with small groups and observe attitude change, conformity, leadership, morale, and other forms of behavior. They also study social interaction, which is the way the members of a group respond to one another and to other groups. In addition, sociologists examine the results of conflicts between groups, such as crime, social movements, and war.
In most societies, standards of behavior are passed on from one generation to the next. Sociologists and psychologists observe how people adjust their behavior to conform to these standards, a process called socialization.
Sociologists also study social roles and status. A social role is the function or expected behavior of an individual within a group. Status is a person’s importance or rank.
Social institutions
consist of organized relationships among people and tend to perform a specific function within a society. These institutions include business organizations, churches, governments, hospitals, and schools. Each institution has a direct effect on the society in which it exists. For example, the attitudes and the goals of an entire society are influenced by the transmission of learning and knowledge in educational institutions. Some branches of sociology study the influence of one particular type of institution. These branches include the sociology of the family and the sociology of law.
Sociologists also study relationships among institutions. For example, sociologists try to discover whether distinct types of social classes and governments are associated with particular systems of economic production.
Cultural influences
help unify a society and regulate its social life. These influences also give people a common base of communication and understanding. The culture of a society includes its arts, customs, language, knowledge, and religious beliefs. Sociologists study the effect of each of these elements on social conditions and behavior. For example, religious beliefs may determine the moral code of a society. Sociological studies focus on the way this code regulates social behavior and the role the code plays in the establishment of a society’s laws.
Social change
is any significant alteration in the social conditions and patterns of behavior in a society. Such a change may be caused by fashions, inventions, revolutions, wars, and other events and activities. Technological developments have led to many social changes since 1900. A number of sociological studies have concentrated on the changes in education, social values, and settlement patterns that occur in newly industrialized nations.
Methods of sociological research
Sociological theories must be tested and verified before they can be considered reliable. Sociologists use three chief methods to test theories. These methods are (1) surveys, (2) controlled experiments, and (3) field observation.
Surveys,
sometimes called public opinion polls, are the most widely used method of sociological research. They measure people’s attitudes about various subjects. Sociologists often use surveys to determine the relationship between a certain viewpoint and such factors as age, education, and sex.
Most surveys are conducted by the use of questionnaires prepared by sociologists. These questionnaires consist of clearly worded questions about the participant’s background and his or her opinions on the subject being studied.
The sociologist selects the group of individuals to be questioned. This group, called a sample, may be chosen at random or may be selected to represent a particular segment of the population. The sociologist questions the participants personally or by telephone, or mails the questionnaires to the participants. In most cases, sociologists use computers to analyze the survey results.
Surveys provide information on voting behavior, consumer buying habits, racial prejudice, and many other human attitudes and activities. Surveys are also used by sociologists to pinpoint particular social problems and to evaluate social conditions within a specific community.
Controlled experiments
are used primarily in the study of small groups. Some of these experiments are conducted in a laboratory. In most cases, two or more highly similar groups of people are studied. The groups differ in one principal feature, which is called a variable. The variable may be age, sex, economic background, or any other identifiable characteristic. The sociologist observes each group to learn if the variable produces a significant difference in the attitudes and behavior of its members.
For example, a sociologist may theorize that groups of people of the same sex solve problems more effectively than coeducational groups. To test this theory, three groups might be studied. The first group would consist only of women, the second of men, and the third of an equal number of both. The groups must be similar in such factors as age, education, and social background. All the groups receive identical problems and instructions. If the groups composed of members of one sex perform better consistently, the theory has been verified. In most cases, however, sociologists test theories more extensively before forming any general conclusions.
Field observation
usually involves a sociologist’s living in the community that he or she is studying. Information is gathered primarily through observation and conversations with members of the community. The sociologist also may participate in a variety of social functions and political activities during the period of study.
The community’s institutions and culture are studied, along with the attitudes, behavior, and interactions of its members. The sociologist then draws general conclusions about the community’s social conditions and records these findings in a report called a case study. Case studies provide reference material for sociologists who are studying similar communities. Such information is also used in comparative sociology, a field concerned with examining the similarities and differences among societies.
History
Early sociological thought.
The study of human society dates back to ancient times, but it was not considered a science until the early 1800’s. At that time, the French philosopher Auguste Comte created the term sociology. Comte developed the theory of positivism, which held that social behavior and events could be observed and measured scientifically and expressed in the form of scientific laws.
Many sociological theories were suggested during the 1800’s. Several of them were single-factor theories, which emphasized one factor as the controlling element of the social order. One of the most historically important single-factor theories was economic determinism, which was developed by two German social thinkers, Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx. This theory states that economic factors control all social patterns and institutions. Economic determinism forms much of the basis of Communism.
During the mid-1800’s, sociological thought was greatly influenced by the theory of evolution. The British philosopher Herbert Spencer concluded that the development of human society was a gradual process of evolution from lower to higher forms, much like biological evolution.
Development of social research.
During the late 1800’s, many sociologists rejected social evolution and shifted to a more scientific study of society. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim was one of the first social thinkers to use scientific research methods. Durkheim conducted an extensive study of suicide. He collected demographic information from various nations and studied the relationship between their suicide rates and such factors as religion and marital status.
In the early 1900’s, the German sociologist Max Weber concluded that sociological theories must be generalizations. Weber devised a method of study in which he compiled all the typical characteristics of a specific group of people. These characteristics formed what Weber called an ideal type. Weber based general conclusions about the group as a whole on this ideal type.
Several new schools of sociological thought gained prominence during the 1920’s. They included diffusionism, functionalism, and structuralism.
Diffusionism stressed the influence that individual societies have on each other. Diffusionists believed that social change occurred because a society adopted various cultural traits of other societies.
Functionalism viewed society as a network of institutions, such as marriage and religion, that are related to and dependent on one another. According to the theory of functionalism, a measurable change in one institution would then cause a change in the others.
Structuralism emphasized the social structure as the major influence on society. Structuralist thinkers developed the idea that social roles and status determined much human behavior.
A sociological theory that was called structural-functionalism also developed during the 1920’s. This philosophy, which included elements of both structuralism and functionalism, was advanced in the 1930’s by the American sociologist Talcott Parsons. The theory of structural-functionalism dominated sociology until the mid-1900’s.
Modern sociology.
During the mid-1900’s, sociology became an increasingly specialized field. In general, sociologists shifted from making conclusions about overall social conditions to studying specific groups or types of people within a society. Such groups as business executives, women who work outside the home, and street gangs have been the subject of sociological studies.
Sociologists also began to rely more heavily on scientific research methods. The survey method has been greatly improved, and the use of computers has increased the efficiency of evaluating survey results. Sociologists also have developed better methods of selecting samples.
Changes in life styles and social conditions during the 1960’s and 1970’s have been the subject of many sociological studies. Various theories have been formed by sociologists on such developments as the drug culture, the youth movement, and the feminist movement.
Since the 1950’s, a growing number of sociologists in the United States have called for greater efforts in the field of applied sociology. These men and women believe that sociologists have an obligation to work toward the solution of social problems and the establishment of social justice.
Today, the fields of study in which sociologists are most active include social mobility and the rise and survival of social organizations. Many sociologists are also studying international systems of interdependence and dominance and social influences on the development of science. In addition, a number of earlier theoretical approaches to sociology, including the Marxist approach, have regained significant influence in the field of sociology.
Careers
Most careers in sociology require a master’s or doctor’s degree. However, people who have a bachelor’s degree in sociology may find positions as interviewers or research assistants. Most sociologists work for educational institutions. But some are employed by government agencies and business organizations.
Colleges and universities employ about 70 percent of the sociologists with Ph.D.’s. Some of these individuals devote most of their time to research programs and to teaching sociology to undergraduate and graduate students. Students often gain experience by assisting their professors with research projects. Community colleges and high schools also employ sociology teachers, most of whom have a master’s degree.
Government agencies are employing an increasing number of sociologists to study the general conditions and needs of communities. The findings of these sociologists are used in determining government policies on housing, education, safety, and other matters of civic concern.
Some city governments employ sociologists as city planners. These experts study such problems as slum housing, transportation, and traffic congestion. They then propose solutions for the problems and plan future development of the city.
Business companies employ many sociologists in the field of market research. Market researchers conduct surveys on consumer buying habits to help firms predict sales of products. Professional sociologists prepare these surveys, but people with little or no sociological background may conduct the interviews. Some businesses also hire sociologists to study problems concerning employee relations and motivation.
Career opportunities in sociology are also available in various other areas. Further information about careers in sociology can be obtained from the American Sociological Association, based in Washington, DC.
