Spanish-American War was a short war in 1898 that established the United States as a major world power. The conflict, between the United States and Spain, involved the issue of the liberation of Cuba. The war was fought during the spring and summer of 1898. When it ended, the United States gained colonies in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The war marked the end of the 400-year-old Spanish Empire in the Americas.
Despite its short length, the Spanish-American War was significant in a number of ways. The conflict and its aftermath established the uneasy relationship between the United States and Latin America that lasted throughout the 1900’s and into the 2000’s. In addition, the war marked the first time that U.S. troops from the North and South fought side-by-side after the American Civil War (1861-1865). African American and white troops fought together at times.
The Spanish-American War also established the press as a more powerful force in American politics. Newspapers urged the nation to war, and a reporting style that became known as yellow journalism—that is, sensational and sometimes inaccurate reporting—emerged. The war also introduced a popular new leader, Theodore “Teddy” Roosevelt, to the American political scene.
Many scholars consider the name Spanish-American War misleading because it ignores the role of Cuba’s independence movement. In Cuba and other parts of Latin America, the conflict is often called the “Spanish-Cuban-American War” or the “War of 1898.”
Background to the war
During the 1890’s, the United States became increasingly concerned over political unrest in Cuba. In 1895, the Cubans launched a new war for independence. In response, Spanish authorities adopted a policy called “reconcentration” and forced hundreds of thousands of rural Cubans into squalid (unclean) camps to prevent them from supporting Cuban rebels. Thousands died in the camps.
Concerns over Cuba took a dramatic turn on Feb. 15, 1898, when the U.S. battleship Maine exploded in the harbor at Havana, Cuba. More than 250 sailors died.
Many U.S. newspapers, specifically those owned by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, accused the Spanish government of sabotaging the vessel. The accusations sparked outrage from the American public. The cry “Remember the Maine” became a call for war with Spain. The Spanish, however, denied any involvement in the incident. In a 1976 book, several Navy technical experts concluded that the most likely cause of the explosion was that heat from an undetected fire in a coal bin exploded a nearby supply of ammunition. But some experts disputed this explanation.
The administration of U.S. President William McKinley argued that Spain should no longer determine Cuba’s future. At first, McKinley tried to avoid war with Spain by quietly offering to purchase Cuba through diplomatic channels. When Spain rejected U.S. offers, McKinley moved toward war. The Congress of the United States approved a declaration of war against Spain on April 25, 1898.
Chief events
Following early combat in the Philippines, the chief battles of the Spanish-American War took place in the area around Santiago de Cuba. By early July, U.S. victories in land and sea battles had all but ended the war.
Manila Bay.
On May 1, Commodore George Dewey led a U.S. naval attack against Spanish ships near Manila, in the Philippines. The Spanish fleet was destroyed, and no Americans were killed. Shortly afterward, U.S. troops were sent to the islands to establish control. The conflict then shifted to Cuba.
Cuban blockade.
By the end of May, the U.S. Navy had trapped a Spanish fleet in Santiago Bay in eastern Cuba. The two fleets faced each other for several weeks without doing battle. In the meantime, the U.S. Army prepared a land assault. The first U.S. soldiers landed near Santiago on June 22.
Land battles.
On July 1, U.S. military forces, including a regiment led by Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, faced a small Spanish force at the Battle of San Juan Hill. The Americans suffered nearly 1,600 dead and wounded, but they defeated the Spanish. The press named Roosevelt’s men the “Rough Riders.” A few days later, the Spanish ships in Santiago harbor sought to break out, but U.S. vessels destroyed the fleet.
Spanish forces at Santiago formally surrendered in mid-July. But even after the Spanish surrender, the United States refused to allow Cuban rebels, under the command of General Calixto García Iniguez, to enter the city—a sign of tensions to come.
In late July, U.S. forces landed on the neighboring island of Puerto Rico. About 8,000 Spanish soldiers were on the island. Most were in the north, preparing to defend the capital, San Juan, on the island’s north coast. But U.S. troops landed in the southern part of the island and met little resistance, except for a small Spanish force at Coama. Before U.S. and Spanish forces could battle at San Juan, an armistice (agreement to stop fighting) was reached on August 12.
Results of the war
After the fighting ended, the United States demanded control over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam (an island east of the Philippines), and the Philippines. The Treaty of Paris, signed by the United States and Spain on Dec. 10, 1898, officially ended the war.
The Treaty of Paris.
Under the treaty, Spain gave up its claim to Cuba and handed over Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States. The United States, in turn, paid Spain $20 million for the Philippine Islands. The negotiations did not include representatives from Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico, or the Philippines.
Although the Philippines and Cuba had sought independence, the McKinley administration decided to retain control of both. Its reasons included a desire to expand U.S. power and to “uplift” and “civilize” other peoples.
Rebel movements.
Rebel forces in the Philippines and Cuba had to decide whether to accept or resist U.S. occupation. At first, rebels in the Philippines supported the U.S. intervention. Eventually, however, they turned against the occupation and fought U.S. forces in a bloody guerrilla war. The campaign, sometimes called the Philippine Insurrection or the Philippine-American War, was unsuccessful. The Philippines did not achieve independence until 1946.
The Cuban rebels agreed to disarm and accept a U.S. promise of future independence. The United States set up a military government in Cuba before eventually granting the island independence in 1902. Cuba was forced to accept the principles of the Platt Amendment, which gave the United States broad powers to intervene in Cuba’s affairs. The events contributed to long-running tensions between Cuba and the United States.
Puerto Ricans’ responses to the U.S. intervention were mixed. Some wanted an end to Spanish control and accepted the arrival of U.S. forces. Others, however, were satisfied with freedoms that had been granted by Spain and were less enthusiastic. Today, the island’s status as a commonwealth of the United States gives Puerto Rico power over much of its internal affairs.
