Syria << SEER ee uh >> is an Arab country in southwestern Asia. It is a land of rolling plains, fertile river valleys, and barren deserts. Damascus is Syria’s capital. Damascus and Aleppo are the largest cities.
Syria is an ancient land with a rich cultural heritage. Some of the oldest known civilizations existed in this region. One of the world’s first alphabets was developed there. Syrian artists and scholars influenced the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome and the later culture of the Islamic Empire (see Muslims).
Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Its location along major trade routes linking Africa, Asia, and Europe made it a crossroads. Camel caravans followed these routes more than 4,000 years ago. The caravans carried goods between Asia and Mediterranean ports. Such Syrian cities as Damascus and Aleppo grew up along the caravan routes. They became centers of world trade as early as 2000 B.C.
Syrians have also profited from agriculture. The country is at the western end of a rich farmland that is called the Fertile Crescent (see Fertile Crescent). Farmers raise chiefly cotton and wheat on the rich Syrian plains.
Most Syrians are Muslim Arabs. But the population also includes several ethnic and religious minorities. Most of Syria’s people live in the western part of the country. About a fourth of all workers are farmers. Syrian industries are expanding. Rural people have increasingly moved to the cities to seek industrial and service jobs.
Government
Syria is a republic. Its Constitution was adopted in 2012, replacing a previous constitution from 1973. Syrians 18 years or older may vote.
Syria national anthem
National government.
A president is Syria’s head of state and most powerful government official. The people elect the president to a seven-year term. A 250-member parliament called the People’s Assembly makes Syria’s laws. Voters elect council members to four-year terms.
The president heads the Arab Socialist Baath (Renaissance) Party. The Baath Party controls Syrian politics. The party’s power rests on its control of the nation’s armed forces. The Baath Party and Syria’s other legal political parties form a nationalist organization known as the National Progressive Front.
Local government.
Syria is divided into 14 provinces. The national government appoints all provincial governors. Each province also has a people’s council made up of elected and appointed members.
Courts.
The Court of Cassation is Syria’s highest court of appeals. It hears appeals in civil, commercial, and criminal cases. Each of Syria’s religious communities has its own courts for such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
Armed forces.
Syria’s armed forces include an army, an air force, and a navy. All eligible males serve 18 months of military service. Women may volunteer for service.
People
Ancestry.
More than 90 percent of Syrians speak Arabic, Syria’s official language. About 90 percent consider themselves to be Arabs. Most of them are descended from people called Semites who settled in ancient Syria. Non-Arab Syrians include Armenians and Kurds. Their ancestors came from the north. Most of these Syrians still speak Armenian or Kurdish in everyday life.
Way of life.
Syria has some of the world’s oldest cities. They have narrow, winding streets and ancient marketplaces. But the cities also have newer sections. The people in those sections live in modern houses or apartments. They work in government, services, industry, and other fields.
Most people in rural areas live in small villages. Some villagers live much as their ancestors did. They farm small plots. They build houses of stone or of sun-dried mud bricks. Nomadic herders called Bedouins make up a tiny percentage of Syria’s rural people. These people live in tents and move about the countryside grazing their livestock. However, increasing numbers of Bedouins have abandoned their traditional nomadic lives. They have settled on farms or in cities.
Some Syrians, especially in rural areas, wear traditional clothing. Traditional garments include billowy trousers and a large cloth head covering. In the cities and towns, most people wear clothing similar to that worn by North Americans and Europeans. Pita bread, a flat bread made of wheat, is widely eaten in Syria. Most Syrians also eat cheese, fresh fruits and vegetables, and stews. Lamb dishes are commonly served. They are often prepared for special occasions. Syrians, like other Arabs, enjoy strong coffee. They also drink milk, tea, and beer. Another popular beverage is arak, a liquor flavored with the seeds of the anise plant.
Family ties are close among most Syrians. Many parents share their home with their sons and the sons’ families. However, the nuclear family is becoming more and more standard. The nuclear family consists of a father, a mother, and their children. The family typically lives by themselves away from grandparents, aunts, and uncles.
As in most traditional societies, women in Syria face challenges in gaining social privileges and freedoms. However, increasing educational opportunities and exposure to modern ideas are improving the position of women. Several Syrian women now occupy prominent roles in government, politics, and society in general.
Religion.
Muslims make up about 90 percent of Syria’s population. Most of them belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. Syria also has smaller groups of Muslims, including Alawites and Shī`ites. Christians account for most of the rest of the people. Some Syrians are Druses. They practice a secret religion related to Islam. Syria also has a small number of Jews.
Religion, especially Islam, is a powerful political and social force in Syria. However, the ruling Baath Party is not officially tied to any religion. Some Christians serve in leading government positions. Many Syrians feel strong ties to their religious group. These ties have often hindered national unity.
Education.
Syrian law requires all children from 6 through 11 years old to go to school. However, many children do not attend school because of a shortage of classrooms and teachers. About 85 percent of all Syrians 15 years of age or older can read and write. Universities operate in Aleppo, Damascus, Homs, and Latakia.
The arts.
Syria’s cultural heritage goes back thousands of years. Since ancient times, Syrian craftworkers have been famous for their beautiful glassware, metalwork, and textiles. Semites who lived in Syria and Palestine developed one of the earliest alphabets there about 1500 B.C. Some basic ideas in architecture, shipbuilding, and ironwork also originated in Syria. Loading the player...
Syrian contemporary music
Syria’s greatest contribution to the arts has been in literature. Two of Syria’s finest poets were al-Mutanabbi, who lived in the 900’s, and Abu al-Ala al-Maarri, who lived in the 1000’s. During the 900’s, the Syrian al-Farabi became one of Islam’s leading philosophers. Important Syrian writers of the 1900’s included Umar Abu Rishah, Nizar Qabbani, and Syrian-born Ali Ahmad Said (known as Adunis or Adonis).
The land and climate
Syria can be divided into three main land regions. They are, from west to east, the coast, the mountains, and the valleys and plains.
The coast
is a narrow strip of land that extends along the Mediterranean Sea from Turkey to Lebanon. Moist sea winds give the region a mild, humid climate. Temperatures average about 48 °F (9 °C) in January. They average about 81 °F (27 °C) in July. About 40 inches (100 centimeters) of rain falls yearly. The coast is one of the few areas in Syria where crops do not have to be irrigated. Most of the land is cultivated.
The mountains
run mostly from north to south. The region includes the Jabal an Nusayriyah range east of the coast. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains stretch along the border with Lebanon. The region also includes the Jabal ad Duruz, a mountain southeast of the Anti-Lebanon range. The western slopes of the Jabal an Nusayriyah and Jabal ad Duruz are well populated. Most land is cultivated. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains have a dry, stony surface. They are thinly populated. The mountains catch sea winds blowing inland and force them to drop their moisture on the western side of the mountains. Thus, the western slopes have up to 40 inches (100 centimeters) of rain yearly. But the land to the east remains dry. Temperatures average about 41 °F (5 °C) in January. They average about 72 °F (22 °C) in July.
The valleys and plains
include fertile river valleys, grassy plains, and sandy deserts. The Orontes River and mountain streams water the plains along the eastern edge of the mountains. These plains have rich, productive farmlands. They are the home of most of Syria’s people. The Euphrates River and its tributaries provide water for a developing agricultural area in the northeastern part of Syria. Most of the rest of Syria is covered by deserts and by dry grasslands. Bedouins graze their livestock on the grasslands. Little rain falls in the valleys and plains region. Temperatures average about 41 °F (5 °C) in January. They average about 88 °F (31 °C) in July. 
Economy
Syria is a developing country with a number of economic problems. In the 2010’s, conflict caused by a bitter civil war and the emergence of terrorist groups devastated the country’s economy. Syria has a high unemployment rate, and many of its people live in poverty. Agriculture and mining rank among the country’s most important economic activities.
Natural resources.
Syria’s most valuable natural resources are agricultural land and petroleum. The Euphrates and Orontes rivers provide irrigation water for farmlands. In addition, hydroelectric power is produced at Syria’s huge Tabka Dam on the Euphrates River.
Service industries
account for about half of the value of Syria’s economic production and about 70 percent of the country’s workers. The leading service industries are wholesale and retail trade, tourism, and government services. Aleppo, Damascus, and Latakia are the leading trade centers. Millions of tourists, mostly from other Middle Eastern countries, visit Syria each year. Much of the money spent on government services in Syria goes to military and intelligence (information-gathering) activities.
Agriculture
employs about 10 percent of Syria’s workers. Much of the country’s agricultural production occurs near the Mediterranean coast. Olives and wheat are Syria’s main crops. Farmers also grow almonds, barley, cotton, pistachios, sugar beets, tobacco, and such fruits and vegetables as apples, grapes, oranges, and tomatoes. Bedouins raise cattle, goats, and sheep. 
Most Syrian farmers work small plots of land. Some use old-fashioned methods. However, government funds have helped provide modern machinery for many small farms. Syria also has a few large, state-owned farms. On most of Syria’s land, the rainfall is too light and irregular for many kinds of crops. Irrigation thus plays a vital role in farming.
Manufacturing
also employs about 10 percent of Syria’s workers. The country manufactures beverages, cars, cement, clothing, fertilizer, food products, glass, pharmaceuticals (medicinal drugs), and textiles. Syria also has a growing oil-refining industry. The main industrial centers are Damascus, Aleppo, Homs, and Latakia.
Mining
employs about 1 percent of Syria’s workers. Petroleum and natural gas are important mineral products. Most of the petroleum comes from fields in the northeastern part of the country. Natural gas is found in eastern and central Syria. Phosphate rock is another important mined product. Phosphate is used to make fertilizer. The country’s other mineral products include gypsum, marble, salt, sand, and stone.
International trade.
Syria imports more than it exports. Major imports include chemicals, food, machinery, metals and metal products, motor vehicles, and petroleum products. Syria exports chemicals, clothing, crude oil, food, raw cotton, and textiles. Syria’s main trading partners include China, Egypt, Iraq, Italy, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey.
Transportation and communication.
Most of Syria’s roads are paved. Damascus has the country’s leading international airport. Latakia and Tartus have major ports. Syria’s main radio and television stations and newspapers are controlled by the government. The use of computers is spreading among educated urban Syrians.
History
Until 1918, Syria included much of what are now Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and parts of Turkey. This region, often called Greater Syria, has a long, colorful past. Throughout history, Syria’s rich soil and location on major trade routes have made the country a valuable prize. As a result, many battles were fought for Syria. It became part of many empires.
Semitic settlement.
Unidentified peoples lived in northern Syria before 4500 B.C. The first known settlers in Syria were Semites who probably arrived about 3500 B.C. They established city-states throughout the region. One city-state, Ebla, flourished sometime between 2700 and 2200 B.C. Ebla was a powerful kingdom with an advanced civilization. See Ebla.
Various Semitic groups ruled parts of Syria until 539 B.C. For example, the Akkadians conquered much of northern and eastern Syria during the 2300’s B.C. The Canaanites may have moved into the southwest and along the Mediterranean coast about 2000 B.C. The Greeks later called the people living along the coast Phoenicians. Phoenician sailors carried Syrian culture throughout the Mediterranean world.
By 1700 B.C., the Amorites ruled much of eastern Syria. The Arameans arrived in Syria about 1500 B.C. Their culture gradually spread through most of Syria. By 1200 B.C., Damascus was a prosperous Aramean city. During the late 1200’s B.C., the Hebrews entered southern Syria. In 732 B.C., the Assyrians conquered most of Syria. They ruled until 612 B.C., when the Babylonians took control.
The age of non-Semitic rule.
Persian forces defeated the Babylonians in 539 B.C. The Persians made Syria part of the Persian Empire. Greek and Macedonian armies under Alexander the Great conquered the Persians in 331 B.C. Under Alexander and his successors, the Seleucids, Greek culture spread throughout most of the Middle East. The Seleucids ruled from 312 to 64 B.C. During their reign, trade flourished. Many agricultural advances were made.
Syria fell to the Romans in 64 B.C. Syrians then lived under the Roman system of law for nearly 700 years. Syria was first part of the Roman Empire. Then it was part of the East Roman Empire. Finally, Syria was part of the Byzantine Empire. During this period, Christianity was born and developed in a part of Greater Syria called Palestine. It became the state religion of Syria in the A.D. 300’s.
The Muslim Arabs.
Muslims from the Arabian Peninsula invaded Syria in 633. They defeated the Byzantine forces in 636. Islam gradually took the place of Christianity. Arabic became the common language of the area. Beginning in 661, a vast Islamic Empire was governed from Damascus by the Umayyad dynasty (line of rulers). In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown. The Abbāsid dynasty gained control of the empire. The dynasty ruled the empire from Baghdad, in what is now Iraq.
Christian crusaders
from Europe invaded Syria during the late 1000’s. The crusaders hoped to capture the Holy Land (Palestine) from the Muslims. Saladin, the Muslim ruler of Egypt, swept into Syria to fight off the crusaders. By the late 1100’s, Saladin had become the ruler of most of Syria.
The Mamluks and Ottomans.
From 1260 to 1516, Syria was governed by the Mamluk dynasty of Egypt. In 1516, the Ottoman Empire conquered Syria. Ottoman rule lasted about 400 years. During the late 1500’s, European explorers discovered sea routes to India. Syria’s position as a trade center then declined. By the 1700’s, the power of the Ottoman Empire was growing weak. By 1900, many Syrians were demanding independence.
World War I to independence.
During World War I (1914-1918), Syrians and other Arabs revolted against the Ottomans. They helped the United Kingdom fight the Ottoman Empire. The Arabs had agreed to aid the United Kingdom in return for its support of Arab independence. But after the war ended, the League of Nations divided Greater Syria into Syria and Palestine. Palestine was later divided into Palestine and Transjordan. Syria was later divided into Syria and Lebanon. The League gave France a mandate (order) to manage Syrian and Lebanese affairs (see Mandated territory). France used force to gain control of Syria. Most Syrians resented French control, the presence of French troops, and the division of their land. They demanded independence.
Independence.
France finally withdrew all its troops from Syria in 1946. Syria thus gained complete independence. Many Syrians wanted to reunite Greater Syria. But in 1947, the United Nations (UN) divided Palestine into a Jewish state (Israel) and an Arab state. Israel declared its independence in 1948. Syrian and other Arab forces then went to war with Israel. But they were unable to defeat Israeli forces, which were larger and better equipped. The UN eventually arranged a cease-fire. More than 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were driven out of their homes in the new Jewish state. They became refugees in neighboring Arab countries.
Many Syrians blamed their government for failing to prevent the division of Palestine. In 1949, army officers overthrew the government. During the next 20 years, control of the government changed hands many times through military revolts.
In a move toward Arab unity, Syria joined Egypt in 1958 in a political union called the United Arab Republic (U.A.R.). But Egypt soon threatened to take complete control. Syria withdrew from the U.A.R. in 1961. 
During the early 1960’s, Syria’s Baath Party rose to power. The government took over most industry and all international trade in Syria. In 1970, Hafez al-Assad (also spelled Hafiz al-Asad) seized power in Syria. Assad was a Baathist leader and commander of the air force. He was elected president the next year.
The continuing Arab-Israeli conflict.
During the early 1960’s, border clashes between Syrian and Israeli troops occurred frequently. On June 5, 1967, Israel went to war with the Arab states of Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. After six days of fighting, Israel had won the war. Israel occupied much Arab land. This included an area called the Golan Heights, in the southwestern corner of Syria. Thousands of Arabs fled from territory occupied by Israel to seek refuge in neighboring Arab countries. 
Fighting between Syria and Israel continued occasionally around the Golan Heights. The presence in Syria of Arab refugees from Palestine and the Golan Heights increased tension between Syria and Israel.
In October 1973, Syria and Egypt went to war with Israel. Cease-fires ended most of the fighting by November. But Syrian and Israeli forces continued fighting each other off and on until May 1974.
In 1981, Israel claimed legal and political authority in the Golan Heights. Syria and many other nations denounced Israel for this action.
Other conflicts.
In 1976, Syria sent troops into Lebanon in an effort to stop a civil war there. Syria had the approval of the Lebanese government then in power. Syrian troops remained in Lebanon as part of an Arab peacekeeping force. Starting in 1979, the peacekeeping force consisted entirely of Syrian troops. This force periodically fought against participants in the Lebanese conflict. Most fighting in Lebanon ended in 1991. But Syrian forces remained there until 2005.
In August 1990, Iraq invaded and occupied Kuwait. After the invasion, Syria, the United States, and many other countries formed an alliance to oppose Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait. War broke out in January 1991. The allies defeated Iraq in February. About 20,000 Syrian troops took part in the war effort. See Persian Gulf War of 1991.
The 2000’s.
In June 2000, President Hafez al-Assad died. The Baath Party chose his son, Bashar al-Assad (also spelled Bashar al-Asad), to take over as president. Assad has since won every presidential election against little or no opposition. 
In 2011, antigovernment protests erupted in several Syrian cities. Protesters called for greater political freedom, the release of political prisoners, and the removal of President Assad. The protests led to an open, armed rebellion against Assad’s government. Since then, Syria has been devastated by a bitter civil war that has killed some 600,000 people. About 6 million people have fled the country.
The fighting in Syria allowed for the emergence of the Islamic State and other terrorist groups. Other names for the Islamic State have included the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The Islamic State has periodically controlled large parts of the country. A coalition of nations, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Saudi Arabia, launched air strikes against Islamic State targets in Syria. Russia, too, launched air strikes against terrorists as well as rebel opponents of President Assad. By mid-2018, the Syrian government controlled more than three-fourths of Syrian territory. But fighting with rebel forces continued into the 2020’s, especially in the northwest.
In northern Syria, a Kurdish-led rebel alliance held large areas south of the Turkish border. Some U.S. troops were helping the Kurds to battle the Islamic State in the region until the U.S. government began withdrawing them in October 2019. Turkey then invaded northern Syria and briefly fought with the Kurds. Turkey considers some members of the Kurdish-led rebel alliance to be terrorists. In addition, Turkey planned to establish a safe zone in northeastern Syria, under Turkish control, where Syrian refugees that had fled to Turkey during the civil war could be resettled. Russia and Turkey reached an agreement that they would patrol the border area after the Kurds were forced from the region. In 2020, the Kurdish-led rebel alliance maintained control of parts of eastern Syria, where some of the nation’s oil fields were located. Several hundred U.S. troops were sent there in late 2019 to help the Kurds prevent the oil fields from falling back into the hands of the Islamic State.
In February 2023, a powerful earthquake struck northwestern Syria and south-central Turkey. About 60,000 people were killed, mostly in Turkey, and more than 120,000 were injured across the region. In Syria, the earthquake killed about 6,000 people. The affected area in Syria included territory controlled by rebel forces. Fighting continued after the quake.
