United Kingdom, Government of the. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. That means it is a monarchy in which the ruler has only the powers given to him or her by the constitution and laws. The monarch is the official head of state, but the prime minister and a cabinet of senior politicians govern the country. Parliament is the chief lawmaking body. The monarch must approve all bills passed by Parliament before they can become laws. However, no monarch has rejected a bill since the early 1700’s.
The Parliament of the United Kingdom has two legislative houses. The House of Commons is the more powerful of the two. Its members are elected from the four main political units that make up the United Kingdom—England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The House of Lords has little power. It can delay, but not defeat, any bill that the Commons is determined to pass.
In 1999, the government of the United Kingdom granted some of its powers to the governments of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in a process called devolution. Scotland now has its own parliament. Northern Ireland has its own legislative assembly. Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland gained more control over local government issues, such as public health, roads, schools, and higher education.
The constitution
The constitution of the United Kingdom differs from the constitutions of many other countries. It is not a single written document. Some people argue, therefore, that the United Kingdom has no constitution. But when most people talk of the British constitution, they refer to the various laws and rules that govern the branches of government.
Some parts of the constitution are laws passed by Parliament. Other parts come from common law. Common law is a body of laws and judgments based on traditional customs and beliefs. There are also many unwritten constitutional conventions. These conventions are ideas and practices developed through the years, such as the cabinet system of government.
One central principle of the British constitution is that Parliament has supreme lawmaking authority. Parliament even has authority to make constitutional changes. However, some people—including many politicians in Scotland and Northern Ireland—claim that Parliament’s power has been limited by treaties and other agreements.
Executive offices
The prime minister
is the head of government. He or she is usually the leader of the political party that has won the most seats in the House of Commons. After each general election, the monarch ceremonially appoints the prime minister and asks him or her to form a government. The prime minister then picks a group of ministers to make up the Cabinet. The prime minister also makes appointments to many other ministerial offices.
By tradition, the prime minister is also first lord of the Treasury and minister for the civil service. The office of prime minister is usually considered to date back to 1721. The term prime minister was also first used in the 1700’s. But it was not officially recognized until the early 1900’s. The prime minister’s official home is at 10 Downing Street, near Parliament. Prime ministers also have the use of a country house called Chequers, in Buckinghamshire.
The prime minister has four main responsibilities—leading the government, advising the monarch, leading the party, and representing the United Kingdom.
Leading the government.
The prime minister chooses the ministers for his or her government. Much of a prime minister’s time is spent reading reports from government departments or from diplomats in other countries. The prime minister need not know the affairs of each department in great detail. But he or she generally has a broad knowledge of developments. The prime minister is also expected to keep in close touch with Parliament. Some of the United Kingdom’s prime ministers have assigned themselves control of a government department in addition to their work as prime minister. But, today, government has become increasingly complex, and a number of political experts believe that the prime minister should not take on additional responsibilities. The prime minister’s advisers, in addition to government ministers, include a staff of permanent government employees called civil servants. The prime minister also has his or her own appointed policy unit.
Advising the monarch.
The monarch of the United Kingdom formally approves the prime minister’s choice of Cabinet members and other government officials. The prime minister advises the monarch about these and other appointments, such as bishops for the Church of England and judges for the Court of Appeal. He or she may also submit to the monarch lists of people considered worthy of honors, such as life peerages. A life peerage is a British title of nobility that grants the right to sit in the House of Lords, the upper House of Parliament. The prime minister’s power to select peers is important because it gives him or her some influence over the House of Lords. In addition to these activities, the prime minister also advises the monarch about royal visits to other countries.
Leading the party.
Prime ministers are usually the leaders of their party. If they are not, their party normally selects them as its leader soon after their appointment as prime minister. For example, Winston Churchill was not the head of his party when he became prime minister in 1940. The Conservatives elected him leader of the party several months later.
Party members remove the prime minister from the leadership of their party only in exceptional circumstances. Members of the majority party would seldom remove the prime minister from the party leadership because it would weaken the party. If the party members reject the leadership of the prime minister, he or she can then call a general election. Some of the prime minister’s opponents within the party might lose their seats. Prime ministers usually receive warnings of opposition from within their party early enough to try to head them off. For example, a prime minister may prevent party members from criticizing the government’s handling of affairs by appointing them to ministerial posts.
In extreme cases, however, a majority vote in Parliament can remove the prime minister from the leadership of the party and from the office of prime minister. For example, in May 1940, in the early part of World War II, Conservative Party members of Parliament forced Neville Chamberlain to resign as prime minister. A few months later, Conservatives removed him as party leader because of what they considered his weak war leadership.
Representing the country.
Constitutionally, the monarch is the only person who can represent the whole of the United Kingdom. But there are times when the prime minister, as head of the government, may be regarded as representing the kingdom. For example, the prime minister speaks and acts for the United Kingdom when making a formal visit to another country. The prime minister also does so when receiving a distinguished foreign guest.
The Cabinet
is a group of about 20 senior government officials called ministers responsible for the general policy of the government. The prime minister chairs the Cabinet. Together the prime minister and Cabinet control what new laws and what amendments to existing laws will be introduced to Parliament. The Cabinet must agree on most government actions. But the prime minister alone has certain powers. These powers include the right to ask the monarch to dissolve Parliament and call a general election.
The structure of the Cabinet.
The prime minister is the senior minister in the Cabinet. He or she has the power to appoint the ministers of the government and to demand their resignations. Ministers of the most important government departments are always included in the Cabinet. These departments include the Treasury, the Home Office, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, the Department of Health and Social Care, and the Ministry of Defence.
A senior civil servant holds the post of secretary to the Cabinet. The secretary and a group of assistants form the Cabinet Office. The Cabinet Office is the staff that records the discussions and decisions of the Cabinet. This staff also prepares the agenda (list of topics) to be discussed at Cabinet meetings. Some officials who are not members of the Cabinet, such as non-Cabinet ministers, may attend Cabinet meetings. The chiefs of the Army, Navy, and Air Force may also attend meetings. All ministers must swear on oath that they will not reveal details of confidential government business.
The work of the Cabinet.
The Cabinet is responsible for the general conduct of government affairs. It sees that the country’s laws are carried out. The Cabinet also presents proposed new laws and tax measures to Parliament. The Cabinet normally receives Parliament’s consent to its proposals, because the Cabinet is made up of members of the majority party.
A minister who disagrees with a policy of the Cabinet and will not publicly support it must resign. This resignation is necessary under a principle of government called collective responsibility. Under this principle, the ministers are each responsible for how their department functions. But all the Cabinet members support one another and share responsibility for the government as a whole. As a result, when the Cabinet decides on a policy, each minister must support it. He or she must support the policy even if he or she has argued against it and still does not agree with it.
The Cabinet often appoints committees to consider particular matters of government. These committees may be made up of both Cabinet and non-Cabinet ministers. Cabinet committees are often used for talks on government projects that require the cooperation of several departments.
One of the most important Cabinet committees is the National Security Council, headed by the prime minister. Another important committee, the Parliamentary Business and Legislation Committee, considers what proposed new laws should be submitted to Parliament.
Parliament
Parliament makes the laws of the United Kingdom. Parliament meets in the Royal Palace of Westminster. The building is better known as the Houses of Parliament. The British Parliament has been called the Mother of Parliaments because many of the world’s legislatures have copied features from it. See Whitehall. 
The majority party in the House of Commons leads the government. The largest minority party in Parliament is called His (or Her) Majesty’s Opposition. The leader of the opposition is elected by his or her fellow party members. The opposition has the right to a fixed share of parliamentary time. It is the duty of the opposition to criticize the government. The opposition tries to obtain concessions (changes) in government bills. It also presents itself to the public as a possible alternative government. For this reason, the leading members of the main opposition party are referred to as the shadow cabinet. Generally, each member of the shadow cabinet acts as a spokesperson for an area of policy that roughly corresponds to a government department in the real Cabinet.
The king or queen formally opens Parliament. The monarch also prorogues Parliament—that is, brings each session of Parliament to an end. At the end of a Parliament’s time in office, the monarch dissolves it—that is, brings the existing Parliament to an end. The monarch also completes the process of passing an act by giving the royal assent (formal approval of the monarch). By tradition, the king or queen never acts without the advice of his or her ministers.
The House of Commons
is by far the more powerful of Parliament’s two Houses. The House is often called simply the Commons. The Commons has 650 members. Each member represents a district called a constituency. Official committees, called boundary commissions, make recommendations for setting the number of constituencies and their boundaries. The boundaries are then approved by Parliament. A member does not have to live in the constituency he or she represents. The citizens of the United Kingdom choose members in a general election. A general election must be held at least every five years. However, the prime minister may call an election anytime. Almost all citizens 18 years old or older may vote. Those who cannot vote include peers (members of the nobility who are serving in the House of Lords) and people with mental illness. 
The speaker of the House of Commons is a member chosen by the whole Commons to preside over its meetings. The chairman of ways and means, who is also deputy speaker, acts as chairman when the Commons sits as a committee. Two other deputy chairmen help the speaker and the chairman of ways and means. They may sometimes preside over meetings of Commons. The presiding individual selects the next member to speak and tries to preserve order. He or she works to keep a balance between people speaking for the government and for the opposition. The speaker, the chairman, and the two deputies only speak in their official capacity. They do not express an opinion on any matter.
The prime minister and members of the government sit on the front bench on the speaker’s right. The leading members of the opposition sit on the opposite front bench. These members, on both sides, are known as front-benchers. Behind them sit the back-benchers (party members who are not leaders). Whips maintain contact between front-benchers and back-benchers on both sides of the Commons. Whips are members elected by their parties in Parliament to enforce discipline within the party. They make sure that members are present in the chamber to vote on important issues.
The leader of the House of Commons is a member of the government who arranges the timetable and calendar of business of the Commons. To do so, the leader consults with the chief whips of both sides. The supporting staff of the Commons includes the clerk, who keeps records. There is also a sergeant at arms, who maintains order.
Much of the House’s work is done in committees. Committees meet in the mornings and the afternoons. In addition to standing committees, the Commons has many select committees. Each select committee considers a specific subject. The select committees hear evidence and publish reports that the House may debate. See House of Commons.
The House of Lords
has little power. It can delay, but not defeat, any bill that the Commons is determined to pass. The House of Lords is often called the Lords.
The Lords usually has more than 700 members, but the number fluctuates with leaves of absence, suspensions, and disqualifications. Its members include more than 600 life peers, 92 hereditary peers, and 26 lords spiritual. Life peers are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the prime minister. They serve for their lifetimes. Hereditary peers are drawn from among certain nobles who inherit their titles. There were formerly more than 700 hereditary peers in the Lords. However, in 1999, the right of most hereditary peers to sit in the Lords was abolished. The 92 who remain are called elected hereditary peers. Most were chosen by the House of Lords or by their own political party or group. The lords spiritual are bishops of the Church of England.
The speaker of the House of Lords presides over the body. The supporting staff of the House of Lords includes the clerk of the parliaments, who deals with records and procedure. The gentleman or lady usher of the Black Rod keeps order and takes messages to the Commons.
Bills.
A bill (proposed law) must be approved by both houses of Parliament to become law. It must also receive the royal assent. The House of Lords cannot originate, amend, or reject money bills. Money bills are concerned solely with imposing taxes or authorizing the spending of public money. Only the Commons can impose taxes and grant money to the government. It does this by making finance laws that are normally effective for one year only. For this reason, no government can remain in office without the support of the majority of the Commons for longer than a year.
The House of Lords shares with the Commons the work of passing bills and debating government policy. A number of bills, including those that deal with the administration of justice, start in the House of Lords. If the Lords rejects a bill that the Commons has initiated and passed, the Commons can pass the bill again in the next session. If the Commons passes the bill a second time, the bill is not sent back to the Lords. Instead, it is submitted for the royal assent. As a result, the Lords can impose only about a year’s delay on legislation. In addition, all money bills become law a month after they are first sent to the Lords, whether or not the House of Lords passes them. The Parliament acts of 1911 and 1949 established these rules. See House of Lords.
Members of Parliament (MP’s)
work for the interests of the people within their constituencies. They also work together for the good of the United Kingdom. Almost all members have a loyalty to a political party.
MP’s spend much time on bills introduced by the government. Some time is reserved for private members—MP’s who are not ministers—to introduce bills.
MP’s also debate the general conduct of affairs by the government. At the end of each day in the Commons, half an hour is set aside for MP’s to raise particular matters that may be of general concern or that may affect a single individual. This period is known as a debate on an adjournment motion. MP’s must draw lots for the opportunity to use this half-hour and to introduce bills of their own. Some MP’s are appointed to serve on select committees of the Commons.
Few MP’s attend all the sittings of the House of Commons. Most members attend only for debates or questions in which they have a particular interest. But if the Commons will vote on an important issue, the party whips assemble all the MP’s available to vote.
Sometimes illness, an important engagement, or a visit overseas may prevent an MP from attending a debate. If the debate is to end in a vote, the MP asks his or her whip to arrange a pair. The whip arranges with the whip of the opposite party to pair off the absent MP with an MP from the other party who will also be absent.
In theory, MP’s cannot resign from Parliament. But, in practice, those who wish to leave Parliament do so by applying for the offices of steward of the Chiltern Hundreds or steward of the Manor of Northstead. These stewardships are paid offices. Acceptance of them automatically disqualifies the holder from being an MP. Once members are out of Parliament, they resign the stewardship. The House can refuse the stewardship to MP’s who behave inappropriately and can vote instead to expel them.
MP’s cannot sit in the Commons if they accept a peerage. MP’s who inherit a peerage can renounce it to stay in the Commons. MP’s give up their membership when Parliament is dissolved and a general election is held. They decide, after conferring with their local party, whether to stand for election to the next Parliament.
How Parliament works.
Parliament has three main responsibilities—making laws, approving taxation, and monitoring the actions of the government.
Making laws
is Parliament’s most important function. Most laws result from bills introduced by the government. Back-benchers also have some time to introduce bills. The introduction of a bill is called its first reading. After a bill has been given a second reading (approved in principle), it is usually sent upstairs. This phrase means that the bill is passed to a standing committee of 16 to 50 members. The members of the committee will examine it in detail. Sometimes the bill is kept on the floor. This phrase means that the bill is kept in the House to be discussed in the Committee of the Whole House. When the House sits as a committee, proceedings are less formal than when it sits as a house.
After the standing committee has discussed and amended a bill, it goes back to the House for consideration. The House may amend it further. The House makes a final decision on the bill at the third reading, often without debate. When a bill has gone through these stages in both Houses, it is ready for the royal assent.
Approving taxation
to provide the government with income is another important function of Parliament. The chancellor of the exchequer is in charge of the Treasury. The chancellor proposes changes in taxation. The chancellor describes taxation proposals in a budget speech given to the Commons each fall and spring. When the Commons has agreed to the proposals in general, they are set out in detail as a finance bill. Proposed tax increases usually come into force immediately. If Parliament rejects any increase during detailed discussion of a finance bill, that tax increase is then canceled.
There is a special procedure for dealing with overall reviews of taxation and government spending. In consultation with the Treasury, ministers prepare detailed estimates of the money they will need for their departments during the coming year. Parliament usually agrees to the estimates with little discussion. It creates a consolidated fund bill to authorize the spending called for in the estimates. The Treasury Committee then considers the estimates in detail.
Questioning the government
is another important function of Parliament. The goal of questioning the government is to make sure that it is performing its duties honestly and efficiently. At question time, members may ask questions dealing with any matter for which ministers are responsible. In the Commons, question time occupies the first hour of business each day. Back-benchers from both the government and opposition parties may question ministers on matters relating to the ministers’ own areas of responsibility. On Wednesdays, back-benchers and opposition leaders have an opportunity to question the prime minister on any subject. The days on which the House adjourns before the holidays are also reserved for back-benchers. The Commons sets aside 20 opposition days each year for general debates on the government’s policies or any other topics chosen by the opposition parties.
Parliament’s schedule
begins when the monarch opens a new session. A new session usually starts in early November. The monarch addresses both Houses in the chamber of the House of Lords. The Cabinet prepares the monarch’s speech. The speech outlines the business that the government proposes to bring before Parliament.
After the monarch’s speech, the Houses separate. Each House proposes a motion thanking the monarch for the speech. The opposition proposes amendments to this motion regretting that the speech failed to deal with various issues favored by members of the opposition party. This process is called the Debate on the Address. It lasts from four to five days. It usually becomes a general debate on the policy of the government and the state of the union. After the Debate on the Address, both Houses proceed to the business of making laws.
The government tries to get some important bills through the second reading before Christmas. After the beginning of the year, the Houses consider and give a third reading to bills that have passed the committee stage. Additional bills may also be introduced.
On average, Parliament meets about 160 days in each session. During a session, there are normally four short recesses of one to three weeks. There is also a longer recess from late summer until early autumn. The Houses usually reassemble in mid-October and conclude the session’s business. The monarch then prorogues Parliament and in the next week opens the new session.
Recording of Parliament.
All Parliamentary debates are published in Hansard. Hansard is the official verbatim (word-for-word) report of the proceedings in Parliament. It is edited only to remove repetitions and correct obvious errors. The report is named for the Hansard family, which first compiled such reports. Some sittings of Parliament are broadcast live by radio or television. Televising of proceedings in the House of Lords began officially in 1986. The first televised sitting of the House of Commons was in 1989. Members of the public may attend nearly all sittings of the Commons and Lords.
Regional government
In referendums held in 1997, Welsh voters approved plans for a 60-member assembly for Wales. The Scots voted to accept plans calling for the election of 129 representatives to a Scottish Parliament. These legislative bodies met for the first time in 1999. They have control in certain domestic affairs.
A 1998 political settlement in Northern Ireland created three new political bodies. They are the Northern Ireland Assembly; the North-South Ministerial Council; and the British-Irish Council. These groups began meeting in 1999.
The Northern Ireland Assembly has responsibility for many domestic matters. The voters of Northern Ireland elect the Assembly’s 90 members.
The North-South Ministerial Council handles some affairs of the entire island of Ireland. It includes representatives from the governments of both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The council’s decisions are subject to the approval of the Irish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly.
The British-Irish Council addresses issues of concern to all of the United Kingdom and Ireland. The council brings together representatives from the parliaments of both countries; the assemblies of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales; and the governments of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.
Local government
Separate systems of local authorities exist in the different divisions of the United Kingdom. The British Parliament’s local government legislation applies only in England and Wales. The Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly have legislative powers over their local government. If a local authority requires additional powers, it may seek a private act of Parliament. Parliament can pass laws requiring all local authorities to fulfill new functions. It can also pass adoptive acts that let local authorities take up certain powers if they so wish.
Central government is responsible for such areas as income tax and defense. But local authorities have wide powers in many other areas. These include control of housing, public health, recreation, roads, and schools. Local authorities also control many aspects of town and county planning. The work of local authorities is concerned with meeting immediate needs within their own areas.
Elected councilors control most of the local government. Paid officials act on the councilors’ decisions.
England.
There are several different types of local government in England. The large urban areas, except London, are divided into metropolitan counties. These counties are further divided into metropolitan districts. The city of London is divided into boroughs. Outside of the urban areas in England, types of local government include county councils, district councils, and unitary authorities.
London is governed by the Greater London Authority (GLA). The GLA was created in 2000. It is made up of an elected mayor and a separately elected assembly. The GLA is responsible for the city’s public transportation, the Metropolitan Police, the fire services, and the London Development Agency. London’s 32 boroughs and its central financial district each have an elected council headed by a mayor that is responsible for most other local government services. The central financial district is known as the City.
County councils administer such matters as environmental planning, firefighting, garbage disposal, highways, libraries and local museums, parks, police, schools, and town and county planning. The areas covered by the county councils are then divided into districts. District councils provide a range of services. They include environmental planning, cemeteries, housing, local planning, public transportation, and garbage collection. District councils also supervise local museums and art galleries, parks and open spaces, and sports fields. District policies must fit in with the policies of the county.
The remaining areas of England are administered by unitary authorities. Unitary authorities are responsible for providing a full range of local services to a specific geographical area. These services include consumer protection, cultural services, economic development, education, and environment services. They also include fire services, garbage disposal, housing, libraries, local tax collection, police, road planning and maintenance, and social services.
Northern Ireland.
The only local governments in Northern Ireland are the elected councils for its 11 local government districts. The six counties that make up Northern Ireland ceased to be administrative units during a local government reorganization in 1973. The current districts were set up in 2015. The district authorities provide services similar to those provided by the districts in England, except for housing. Housing is provided by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive.
Scotland.
In Scotland, the only local government authorities are the council areas, set up in 1996. The council areas are similar to the unitary authorities in England but generally larger in area. Until 1995, Scotland was governed as nine large regions.
Wales.
In Wales, the local government authorities are the unitary authorities. Until 1996, Wales was divided into county councils similar to those in England.
Political parties
There are two types of political parties in the United Kingdom. Some parties aim to appeal to the public as a whole. They have policies that cover the whole range of government. Other parties aim to appeal to a small section of the public and have limited policies.
Two parties have traditionally dominated the British Parliament. One forms the government. The other forms the opposition. All parties not involved in government receive financial help from the government to meet parliamentary expenses.
Main parties.
The two largest parties in the United Kingdom are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Traditionally, the Liberal Democrats have been a strong third party.
The Conservative Party
developed from the Tory Party, which began in the late 1600’s. Since then, it has always been one of the two main parties in the United Kingdom. Since World War II (1939-1945), the Conservative Party has spent more time in government than in opposition.
The Labour Party
was originally established to promote socialist policies. The Labour Party began in 1900. Between 1906 and 1921, it gradually replaced the Liberal Party as one of the two main parties. Historically, much of its support has come from trade unions. It has held government office several times.
The Liberal Democrats
are the result of a merger between the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party (SDP). The Liberal Party developed from the Whigs, who emerged in the late 1600’s. The Liberal Party lost much of its power after the 1920’s. The Social Democratic Party was formed in 1981. After an initial surge of success, the SDP lost support. In 1988, the SDP merged with the Liberal Party to form the Liberal Democrats. A small group of SDP members refused to accept the merger. They continued as an independent party for two more years.
Minor parties
often differ from the main parties by supporting more left-wing or more right-wing policies. Left-wing parties have included the Workers Revolutionary Party and the Socialist Party of Great Britain. Right-wing parties have included the British National Party, the United Kingdom Independence Party, and the Reform UK party. The right-wing parties favor nationalism—that is, government policies that support the idea of a common British culture, language, origin, and tradition. Such parties led the resistance to the country’s membership in the European Union. During the 1980’s, the Green Party grew quickly. It campaigned on issues relating to the environment.
Other parties in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland
aim to secure more self-government for their countries. These parties include the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru (Party of Wales). Both parties regularly win seats in elections. Northern Ireland has several small parties with parliamentary representation. The Unionist parties believe in maintaining Northern Ireland’s union with the United Kingdom. The Irish nationalist parties include the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), and Sinn Féin. Both aim to reunite Ireland by peaceful means.
Courts
The courts of the United Kingdom operate under three separate legal systems—one for England and Wales, one for Northern Ireland, and one for Scotland. In each system, some courts hear only criminal cases, and other courts handle only civil cases. Decisions made by lower courts may be appealed to higher courts.
Until 2009, the House of Lords served as the highest court of appeal for civil cases in all three legal systems. It also served as the highest court of appeal for criminal cases, except in Scotland. In 2009, a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom took over the judicial functions previously held by the House of Lords. Twelve members of the House of Lords became the first Supreme Court justices. In Scotland, the highest court of appeal for criminal cases is the High Court of Justiciary.
The monarch appoints all British judges on the advice of the government. Judges serve until retirement.
