United States, Government of the. The government of the United States represents, serves, and protects the American people at home and abroad. Because the United States is a nation of great wealth and military strength, the actions of its government affect all parts of the world.
The Constitution of the United States establishes the basic structure of the U.S. government. The Constitution creates a federal system, in which political power is divided between the national government and the governments of each state. The national government is sometimes called the federal government. The Constitution also creates three separate branches of government—legislative, executive, and judicial—to share the work of creating, enforcing, and interpreting the laws of the nation. The branches are represented by Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court of the United States.
The national government of the United States is the country’s largest government system. It employs about 2 million civilian workers and approximately 11/3 million military personnel. In 2022, it collected about $5 trillion in taxes from American citizens and corporations to help finance its work.
From the United States capital in Washington, D.C., the national government conducts thousands of activities that affect the lives of Americans. It helps fund many state government services, including job training, welfare payments, roads, and health care. It manages a social security program that provides a pension plan and other benefits to the nation’s retired or disabled workers. It sets standards for programs to aid poor, aged, or disabled people. It tests food and drugs for purity and safety, conducts research on such diseases as AIDS and cancer, and sets standards to control pollution. It conducts and coordinates space exploration. It oversees air travel, forecasts the weather, and runs hospitals for veterans. It maintains national parks, forests, historic sites, and museums.
The national government also deals with the governments of other nations. It works in dozens of international organizations that promote cooperation among nations. Many of these organizations are associated with the United Nations. The government also operates numerous diplomatic and military posts around the world.
Principles of American government
Constitutional authority.
The national government gets its authority from the American people through a written document—the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution defines the goals of the national government and what it can and cannot do.
According to the Constitution, the national government’s purpose is to “establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty. …” The Constitution grants the national government strong powers to work toward these goals. The government has direct authority over all citizens. It can collect taxes and pay debts, borrow money, negotiate with other governments, regulate trade between the states and with other countries, create armed forces, and declare war. It can also create and enforce all laws that are “necessary and proper” to carry out its constitutional goals and powers. See Constitution of the United States.
The Constitution also limits the authority of the government. It forbids certain laws and actions. The Bill of Rights in the Constitution describes certain basic freedoms and rights of all Americans and forbids the government to violate those rights. For example, the government must respect the people’s freedoms of speech, religion, press, and peaceful assembly.
American citizens can change the Constitution. An amendment may be proposed by Congress or by a national convention called by Congress. The amendment becomes part of the Constitution after being ratified (approved) by the legislatures of three-fourths of the states or by conventions in three-fourths of the states. There have been 27 amendments to the Constitution. See Amendment.
Separation of powers.
Three separate branches share the powers of the United States government. Each branch has both expressed powers—those specifically listed in the Constitution—and implied powers—those reasonably suggested by its expressed powers. In general, the legislative branch makes the nation’s laws, the executive branch enforces the laws, and the judicial branch interprets the laws if questions arise.
A system of checks and balances makes sure that each branch acts only within its constitutional limits. Each branch has some powers that curb, or check, those of the other two. This prevents any single government group or official from becoming too powerful.
The Constitution ensures that the branches remain separate by forbidding members of Congress from serving in another branch. In addition, executive and judicial officials may not serve in Congress. The Constitution provides that the vice president officially preside over the Senate, one of the two bodies of Congress. However, the Senate presidency is mostly a ceremonial role, and the vice president rarely appears in Congress. See Checks and balances.
Federalism
is the division of powers between a national or central government and local authorities. The Constitution divides powers between the national and state governments. In addition, the states share and divide powers with such local political subdivisions as counties, cities, and towns.
The national, or federal, government can exercise only those powers that are listed in the Constitution or implied by the Constitution. The states, or the people, retain all powers not denied them, or not given to the national government, by the Constitution. The federal and state governments have some concurrent powers—that is, they both have authority to do some things. Concurrent powers include the right to tax, spend, and borrow money.
Each state has its own constitution, its own laws, and its own legislative, executive, and judicial branches. In general, state laws and activities must not conflict with the U.S. Constitution, acts of Congress, or U.S. treaties. The states take the lead in such areas as education , public safety, and consumer and environmental protection. Through the years, however, the role of the federal government has increased in these and other state government activities. See Federalism; States’ rights.
Representative democracy.
The United States government relies on the consent of the people. The people elect a certain number of their fellow citizens to represent them in making laws and in other matters. Federal, state, and local laws regulate elections.
Political parties play an important role in elections. They select candidates to run for public office, provide opposition to the party in power, and raise funds to conduct election campaigns. They also inform voters about public affairs and about problems they believe need government action.
The United States has a two-party system—that is, it has two major political parties, the Democratic and the Republican. Members of these two parties hold almost all the offices in the national and state governments.
Minor political parties in the United States rarely elect candidates to government offices. These parties serve chiefly to express discontent over problems that the major parties may have neglected. Often, one or both of the major parties moves toward solving such a problem. Then the third party may disappear or be absorbed by a major party.
The legislative branch
Congress creates, abolishes, and changes federal laws, which govern the nation. Congressional lawmakers also play an important role in establishing public policy—what the government does or says in response to political issues.
Organization.
Congress consists of two chambers—the Senate and the House of Representatives. The two chambers have about equal power. Voters in each state elect the members of each chamber, or house. The Senate has 100 members, 2 from each state, who serve six-year terms. About a third of the seats come up for election every two years. The House of Representatives, usually called simply the House, has 435 members. House members, or representatives, serve two-year terms. The number of representatives from each state is based on the state’s population. Each state has at least one representative. The Senate and House meet in separate wings of the Capitol in Washington, D.C.
Elections are held in November of even-numbered years. The members start each two-year Congress the following January. Beginning with the First Congress (1789-1791), each Congress has been numbered.
The legislative branch includes several agencies that provide Congress with information and services. For example, the Government Accountability Office audits (closely examines) the financial records of various departments and agencies of the federal government and reports its findings to Congress. Other support agencies of Congress include the Congressional Budget Office, the Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress, and the Government Printing Office. 
In addition, each senator and representative has a personal staff to advise him or her on issues, answer mail from voters, handle publicity, and help in other ways. There are also staffs that assist committees in Congress and aides (assistants) for each house.
Functions.
Making laws is the main job of Congress. During each two-year Congress, senators and representatives introduce up to 10,000 bills. In that period, Congress passes, and the president signs into law, about 600 bills.
Congress makes laws on all kinds of matters. Some laws are major policy decisions, such as taxing and spending measures. Others deal with administrative details, such as employee benefits or the purchase of land. Still others are commemorative laws, which honor a group, person, or event. In 1914, for example, Congress honored mothers with a law that declared the second Sunday in May as Mother’s Day. All of these laws are called public laws if they apply to people in general. Congress also passes a few private laws that apply to specific individuals, such as immigration cases.
Congress does more than make laws. It investigates the actions of the executive branch and makes sure the laws are carried out. Congress also reviews the election, qualifications, and ethical behavior of its own members. It can remove federal officials from office, including members of Congress, for serious offenses. The House brings impeachment (misconduct) charges against an official, and the Senate tries the official (see Impeachment).
Each chamber of Congress has some independent duties. The Senate approves or rejects the people that the president appoints to certain high-level federal positions. It also approves or rejects treaties that the president makes. All legislation that deals with taxes or spending must start in the House.
In addition, senators and representatives spend much time serving their constituents—the people who elected them. They answer individuals’ questions or requests, meet with visitors, and inform the public of issues. They often travel to their home states to appear at public events, study area problems, and talk with voters and local officials. In addition, legislators, usually with the help of their parties, conduct their own election campaigns, including fund-raising.
Committee system.
Congress does much of its work through committees. The House has 20 standing (permanent) committees, each with authority over bills in a certain area, such as agriculture or banking. The Senate has 16 standing committees. Most standing committees have subcommittees to handle particular topics. In addition, each house may form select committees or special committees for investigations or other special purposes. Joint committees—made up of members from both the House and the Senate—handle mainly research and administrative details. Most legislators serve on several committees and subcommittees.
When committees or subcommittees study bills, they may hear testimony from experts and other interested people. Committees work out amendments to the bills and other details and recommend bills to the full House or Senate for passage.
Party leadership
has an important influence on Congress. Democratic and Republican members of Congress choose official party leaders for each house. Party leaders plan the legislative strategy of the party, communicate their party’s position on issues to other members, and encourage members to vote along party lines. When voting on major legislation, senators and representatives weigh their party loyalty against their own judgment or the interests of their constituents. On less important bills, legislators usually vote according to their party’s position.
In each house, the majority party—that is, the party with the most members—chooses one of its members to lead the entire chamber. The House chooses a speaker, and the Senate chooses a president pro tempore (temporary president) to serve in the vice president’s absence. In addition, majority-party members head congressional committees.
Each party in the House and Senate also elects a floor leader and an assistant leader called a whip. The floor leaders, known as majority leaders or minority leaders depending on their party, and the whips work for passage of their party’s legislative program.
In the House, the majority party has strong control over the agenda. The Speaker and the majority leader schedule the House’s business and coordinate the committees’ work on bills. House debate rules are formal and rigid, designed to let the majority have its way.
In the Senate, a smaller and less formal body, the majority party has less control. Debate rules allow senators opposed to a bill to make filibusters—long speeches or other tactics designed to slow down or block the legislative process or force the bill’s sponsors to compromise on its content or abandon the bill. See Filibustering.
The lawmaking process
weeds out bills that lack sufficient support. At every stage in the process, a bill’s backers must bargain for the support of their fellow lawmakers. A bill is debated by one or more committees and, if approved, by the full House or Senate. Both houses must approve a bill in exactly the same form before it is sent to the president. If they adopt different versions of a bill, a conference committee, made up of committee leaders from both houses, may be formed to work out the differences. See Congress of the United States (How Congress makes laws)
The executive branch
The executive branch carries out federal laws. It also creates and enforces regulations based on the laws. The president heads the executive branch. Fifteen executive departments and dozens of other agencies handle the daily work of administering federal laws and programs.
The presidency.
The president is elected to serve a four-year term. The 22nd Amendment to the Constitution, approved in 1951, provides that no one can be elected to the presidency more than twice.
A nationwide presidential election is held every four years in November. The people of each state elect delegates to the Electoral College. The delegates, or electors, then choose the president and vice president based on the popular votes in the states they represent. If no candidate receives a majority of Electoral College votes, the House elects the president and the Senate selects the vice president. If the president dies, is removed from office, or becomes unable to perform the duties of office, the vice president takes over the presidency until the next election. The president lives in the White House in Washington, D.C., and has offices there. See Electoral College.
The president has many roles and duties. As chief executive, the president enforces federal laws, directs the preparation of the federal budget, and appoints many high-ranking officials. As commander in chief of the armed forces, the president directs foreign and national security affairs. As chief diplomat, the president negotiates treaties with other countries. As legislative leader, the president recommends laws to Congress and works to win their passage. The president may veto bills approved by Congress. The threat of a veto can influence the way Congress develops a bill.
Loading the player...Presidential oath of office
Congress has the power to restrain most of the president’s powers. Congress must approve the federal budget and the president’s legislative plans. It can override a president’s veto by a vote of a two-thirds majority of the members present in each house. In addition, all treaties and high-level appointments by the president require Senate approval.
For many Americans and people around the world, the president represents the United States government. Presidents can use their visibility in the news media to focus attention on their programs and to create public support for their policies. However, their visibility is a double-edged sword. People often blame presidents for problems, such as an economic depression or a foreign crisis, that the president may not have caused and can do little to solve. See President of the United States.
The Executive Office of the President
consists of a number of staff agencies that provide the president with information, ideas, and advice on a wide range of issues. One agency, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), helps plan the federal budget. The OMB also advises the president on proposed laws and regulations, shaping its recommendations to promote the president’s goals. Another key unit, the White House Office, includes the president’s personal aides, policy advisers, speechwriters, and lawyers. See Presidential assistant.
Executive departments and agencies
carry out laws and create and enforce detailed regulations based on laws. Congress creates departments and agencies to deal with particular matters. It controls the basic structure and authority of each. The Office of Management and Budget and Congress control the funding of departments and agencies. Presidents cannot create, eliminate, or reorganize departments or agencies without the approval of Congress. See Management and Budget, Office of (OMB).
Executive departments
are vast organizations that conduct a wide range of government activities. Each is divided into bureaus, divisions, offices, or other units. The president, with the approval of the Senate, appoints the head of each department. The department heads form the president’s Cabinet, an informal advisory group that helps the president. See Cabinet (Cabinet of the United States)
Independent agencies.
The executive branch includes dozens of agencies that perform government functions. These agencies are called independent agencies because they are not part of an executive department. Some independent agencies, such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Peace Corps, carry out programs or provide services. Others, called regulatory agencies or regulatory commissions, enforce laws dealing with aspects of American economic life. For example, the Federal Trade Commission works to protect consumers from unfair trade practices.
Government corporations are independent agencies that are organized in ways similar to businesses. They conduct commercial activities, perform services, or raise funds for the public. For example, the Tennessee Valley Authority works to develop the natural resources of the Tennessee Valley. The U.S. Postal Service provides mail services.
Control of departments and agencies.
Except for high-level officials appointed by the president, executive departments and independent agencies are made up of permanent staffs of civil service workers. They establish their own ways of carrying out programs and policies. Departments and agencies may be influenced by powerful interest groups. For example, the Forest Service, a division of the Department of Agriculture, manages the national forests. It must juggle the often-conflicting needs of such groups as campers, environmentalists, ranchers, and logging companies. In addition, departments and agencies must cooperate with Congress, especially with the committees that write their laws and approve funds for their programs. See Civil service
Because of these influences, presidents may find it difficult to push departments and agencies and their programs in new directions. To have an effect, presidents may find it necessary to create wide public support for their policies. They can also influence departments and agencies by shaping the federal budget to reflect their goals and by making sure their policies are reflected in new regulations.
The judicial branch
The judicial branch interprets the nation’s laws. It is made up of a system of federal courts and judges. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the nation.
Authority of the courts.
Federal courts settle disputes among citizens involving the Constitution or federal laws, and disputes between citizens and the federal government. They also hear cases involving treaties or maritime (sea) laws. In addition, federal courts may decide certain cases between individuals or groups from different states, and cases involving other countries or their citizens.
The courts’ most important power is judicial review that is, their authority to overturn laws they judge unconstitutional. Any court in the United States can declare laws or the actions of public officials illegal if they conflict with the U.S. Constitution. The Supreme Court, however, is the final authority on such matters. Judicial review provides an important check on the executive and legislative branches, as well as on state and local governments. The Supreme Court first established the power of judicial review in the famous case of Marbury v. Madison (1803), which struck down part of an act of Congress. Since then, the court has completely or partially overturned dozens of federal laws and hundreds of state laws. See Judicial review.
Lower court system.
The Constitution gives Congress the job of creating a system of lower courts. In 1789, Congress passed the Judiciary Act, which established the federal court system. Today, the system includes both trial courts, which conduct the first hearing of a case, and appellate courts, which review a trial court’s decision at the request of the losing party. Most federal courts hear a wide variety of cases. Several specialized courts deal only with particular matters.
District courts
are trial courts with general federal jurisdiction. There are 94 district courts in the United States and its possessions. Each state has at least one. Most federal cases begin in a district court. See District court
Courts of appeals
are appellate courts that review district court decisions on matters of law. A court of appeals can change a ruling if it decides the lower court incorrectly applied the law to the case. Courts of appeals also hear appeals of decisions made by federal agencies. The United States is divided into 12 judicial areas called circuits, each of which has one court of appeals. A 13th court, the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, has nationwide jurisdiction. See Court of appeals.
Special courts.
The federal court system includes several specialized courts that deal with particular matters. For example, the United States Court of Federal Claims hears cases involving claims against the federal government. The Court of International Trade settles disputes over imports. The United States Tax Court handles conflicts between taxpayers and the Internal Revenue Service. The Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces hears appeals from rulings by courts-martial (military courts).
The Supreme Court,
the nation’s highest court, is mainly an appellate court. It can review appeals from federal appellate courts and, in certain cases, appeals directly from district courts. It can also review appeals from the highest court in each state, providing the case involves an important federal question. In certain cases, the Supreme Court is a trial court. It tries disputes involving diplomats from other countries or conflicts between states.
The Supreme Court has one chief justice and eight associate justices. Four justices must agree to hear a case. At least six justices hear the cases chosen and decide each case by a majority vote. In the event of a tie, the lower court decision stands. The Supreme Court meets regularly in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C.
Caseload.
The court receives thousands of appeals each year, but it can choose which ones it will hear. Each year, it hears about 100 cases. Justices select cases that raise important questions about the government system or the rights of Americans. For example, the court hears many cases about the First Amendment guarantees of free speech and religion and about the Fourteenth Amendment’s declaration that all citizens are entitled to equal protection under the law. Justices may choose a case because it involves a question that two or more lower appellate courts have decided differently.
Effects of decisions.
A Supreme Court decision has great importance. Once the court rules on a constitutional question, all other courts throughout the United States are required to follow the decision in similar cases. In this way, the Supreme Court helps guarantee legal equality to all Americans.
Supreme Court decisions are not always carried out. The court must rely on the executive and legislative branches, as well as state and local officials, to enforce its decisions. Government officials may be slow to act on rulings with which they disagree. For example, the court ruled in the 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that public school segregation was unconstitutional. But many Southern communities moved slowly in desegregating their schools after that landmark decision. Congress or state legislatures can pass laws that bypass the Supreme Court’s ruling. If a ruling is extremely unpopular, the Constitution itself can be amended to override the court’s decision.
Judges.
The president appoints all federal judges with the approval of the Senate. Most federal judges may remain in office for life. This lifetime appointment protects them from political control and helps ensure their independence from the other branches of government. However, Congress can remove judges from office through impeachment for corruption or other abuses of office.
Because of the importance of Supreme Court decisions, the political opinions of each justice are of great public interest. Presidents generally nominate individuals to the Supreme Court who share their views on important issues. Before approving each nomination, the Senate carefully examines the nominee’s qualifications. Supreme Court nominees with extreme views on key issues usually face fierce opposition.
Growth of the federal government
Background.
The American Colonies won their independence from Britain (now also called the United Kingdom) in the American Revolution (1775-1783). They founded the first national government of the United States in 1781 under a document called the Articles of Confederation. Under the Articles, however, the states kept much of their independence. The national government could not collect taxes, regulate trade, or force states to fulfill their obligations. Such leaders as George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton feared that the weak national government would collapse. This concern about the Articles of Confederation led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. See Articles of Confederation.
The state delegates at the convention wanted a strong national government but feared that it would not respect the independence of the states and the liberties of the people. In framing the Constitution, they used ideas from the constitutions of New York, Massachusetts, and other states. The delegates also drew on political theories set forth by philosophers of the 1600’s and 1700’s. Such thinkers as England’s John Locke and France’s Baron Montesquieu, for example, had urged separate governmental branches as a way to prevent tyranny.
The delegates created a bold new system of government—the Constitution of the United States. The document went into effect on June 21, 1788, when New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify it. The first 10 amendments, called the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791. The Constitution is the oldest written national charter still in force. It establishes a broad framework of government, flexible enough to change as the nation changes. Through the years, government leaders have worked out the details as required by economic, political, and social conditions.
Early years.
The federal government was tiny when it began operating in 1789. That year, Congress created the first three executive departments—Foreign Affairs (later the Department of State), Treasury, and War—and the office of the attorney general. Only a few hundred clerks served the departments and Congress.
Alexander Hamilton, the nation’s first secretary of the treasury, strongly influenced the early development of the U.S. government. He believed the Constitution should be interpreted loosely to give the federal government broad power. Hamilton pushed bills through Congress that helped pay the nation’s debt from the American Revolution. He also launched plans that provided for such internal improvements as roads and canals, and aided the nation’s struggling new industries. See Hamilton, Alexander.
In 1803, the United States almost doubled its area in a transaction with France known as the Louisiana Purchase. The government sold much of the new land to canal and railroad companies, greatly enriching its Treasury. During the mid-1800’s, the United States gained control of Texas, California, and other lands, extending its boundaries westward to the Pacific Ocean. Because of revenue from land sales, as well as taxes on imported goods, the government often collected more money than it spent during the 1800’s.
The rise of big government.
The size and role of the government grew as the United States expanded westward and developed into an industrial nation. Certain crises and events caused major spurts of government growth.
The American Civil War (1861-1865) led to a great increase in the size of the U.S. government. The war forced the government to build up its military forces. At the beginning of the conflict, the Regular Army of the United States consisted of about 16,000 soldiers, most of whom fought for the Union. By the last year of the war, the Army had more than 1,000,000 troops. The government also had to increase its administrative activities to arm, transport, feed, and clothe the troops. After the war, the government required record keeping and paperwork on a scale never before achieved to process pensions for war veterans.
During the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, federal regulations increased as the government began to actively supervise the marketplace. For example, the government passed laws curbing the power of trusts, large business organizations that limited competition. New laws were created to set railroad rates, improve workplace conditions, and ensure the purity of food and drugs. In addition, the government began to set aside national parks and forests, help farmers grow crops more effectively, and train students for vocational trades.
During the 1930’s, the Great Depression caused the government to greatly increase its role in supervising the economy. Under the New Deal programs of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Congress established many agencies to regulate and influence financial, business, agricultural, and industrial practices. Congress also passed laws to provide jobless benefits and old-age pensions, known as Social Security. In addition, the government spent billions of dollars on relief and on public works projects to create jobs. Citizens built thousands of schools, hospitals, and other public facilities. See New Deal (table: Leading New Deal agencies).
After the Great Depression, the government continued to sponsor public works. For example, the Army Corps of Engineers and the Tennessee Valley Authority dammed rivers to provide flood control and electric power. The interstate highway program, started in 1956, was one of the largest public works projects in history.
During the 1960’s, the federal government expanded again. It passed strong new civil rights laws and began to set environmental standards. It also increased its role in matters that were once handled only by state and local governments, such as education, job training, health care, and transportation.
Responding to world events.
During the 1900’s, the activities of the federal government spread throughout the world. Both World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945) thrust the United States into vast multinational military campaigns in other countries.
Cold War tensions greatly influenced the federal government’s foreign policy and spending for many years. The Cold War was a struggle for international power between Communist nations, led by the Soviet Union, and non-Communist nations, led by the United States. During the Cold War, which began after World War II, the United States government kept its armed forces in a state of military readiness and invested in a massive build-up of nuclear weapons. It also provided billions of dollars in aid to many non-Communist nations. The United States fought two wars, the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Vietnam War (1957-1975), in an effort to stop the spread of Communism in Asia.
In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, Communist rule collapsed in most countries and the Cold War ended. In 1991, the Soviet Union broke apart. As a result, the government shifted much of its attention from foreign affairs to domestic issues, especially the economy.
After terrorist attacks in the United States in 2001, the elimination of international terrorist networks and the prevention of future attacks became central goals of the U.S. government. The U.S. government increased security at government buildings, high-profile events, and other likely terrorist targets. It also assembled an emergency government operation—sometimes called a “shadow government”—that could meet in a secret location in the event of a major attack on the government facilities in Washington, D.C.
Domestic challenges.
Since the early 1990’s, a long list of national problems has demanded the U.S. government’s attention. Many of the nation’s industries have struggled to compete with industries in other countries. Many measures of educational achievement are not as high as they once were. In addition, Americans have been concerned about racial conflict, crime, drug abuse, and poverty, especially in the nation’s cities.
Current issues in U.S. government
Current issues in United States government include debates over how much the federal government should do, how effective it is, and how democratic it is.
How much should the federal government do?
People disagree on what the federal government should do about the nation’s problems, and whether it has been doing too much or too little. In general, people with liberal political views call for the government to increase its efforts to solve economic and social problems. Those with conservative views believe economic and social problems are best solved when government interference is kept to a minimum. But they want the government to promote traditional values.
How effective is the government?
The complex system of checks and balances between the executive and legislative branches makes it difficult for government officials to take quick action. Power is constantly shifting between the president and Congress. Strong presidents can use their position to arouse widespread public support for their plans and thus push them through Congress. The president assumes a dominant role during a crisis, especially a war or a severe economic depression, when the nation wants a strong leader. But in the absence of a crisis, the president must bargain and compromise with Congress.
In a divided government—when one political party wins the presidency and another controls Congress—bargaining may be especially difficult. For example, the president may want to lower taxes. But if the majority party in Congress plans to increase social programs that are funded by taxes, Congress may reject the president’s proposed tax cut.
Even when one political party controls both branches, factions (groups) within the party can stall government action. Elected officials also may be influenced by many powerful special-interest groups who constantly strive for policies that benefit their members. Achieving clear-cut results or sweeping reforms under such a system is usually difficult and sometimes impossible.
How democratic is the government?
Some people feel that certain features of the national government system are undemocratic and block majority rule. For example, the indirect election of the president by the Electoral College has resulted in some candidates winning with only a minority of the popular vote. Other features sometimes considered undemocratic include the appointment—rather than the election—of federal judges and the equal representation of each state in the Senate. In addition, many people believe the expense of election campaigns gives wealthy donors an unfair degree of influence on public officials.
Since the federal government began in 1789, Americans have disagreed on how their government should operate and how much it should do. Historians, political scientists, and other experts agree that no system of government can be perfect. Citizens have a right—and even a duty—to ask how their government is doing and to work to improve the system.
