Universities and colleges are schools that continue a person’s education beyond high school. A university or college education can help men and women enjoy richer, more meaningful lives. It prepares many people for professional careers as doctors, engineers, lawyers, or teachers. It also gives a person a better appreciation of such fields as art, literature, history, sociology (the study of the individuals, groups, and institutions that make up human society), and science. In doing so, a university or college education enables individuals to participate with greater understanding and impact in community affairs.
Modern universities developed from the European universities of the Middle Ages, which lasted from about the A.D. 400’s through the 1400’s. These institutions took their name from the Latin word universitas. This word referred to a group of people organized for a common purpose. Properly speaking, a school that is called a university should deal with nearly all fields of learning. But universities today may differ in the variety of their educational programs, and in their specialized fields of study. Most universities provide graduate and undergraduate programs in a broad array of specialties and disciplines in areas such as business, law, medicine, or social work. They may also have graduate professional schools or colleges.
The first European colleges were groups of students who banded together through desire for advanced learning. At universities in England, colleges were formed to provide living quarters and a dining room for various groups of students. Usually these students studied the same subject. The word college came to mean a specific field of learning.
Harvard University, the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States, was established chiefly to prepare men for the ministry. Today, we would call a school that trains ministers and priests a seminary or theological school (see Seminary). Later, schools broadened their courses to teach such subjects as languages or music, known as the liberal arts (see Liberal arts). These schools became known as colleges of liberal arts. The first U.S. universities divided their courses into fields of learning and called the departments that taught each branch colleges or schools. Thus, the word college has come to have two meanings in the United States. It may mean a part of a university that teaches a special branch of knowledge. It could also mean a separate institution that specializes in one branch of knowledge
Modern universities and colleges offer many types of studies and different degrees. Junior colleges—also called community colleges—mainly offer two-year programs. Some of these programs prepare a person for a semiprofessional career or occupation. After completing a junior college program, some students transfer to a four-year college or to a university for additional study.
Going to college
Most high school students at some time in their studies face two questions: “Should I attend college?” and “What college will serve my purposes best?” Students should take stock of their personal abilities and desires. They must decide whether or not they will receive specific preparation in college that will help them in their future work. For example, some students may find that special vocational training, rather than a college education, will better prepare them for the careers they want (see Vocational education).
Selecting a school.
Students who decide to attend college must choose the school that most nearly fits their needs, finances, and personal likes. They can discover many of the facts by talking to friends and teachers. They can learn about particular schools by visiting their websites.
There are a number of basic questions a student should ask about any school being considered.
1. Does the school offer the courses in which I am interested?
2. Are the school’s classrooms, dormitories, libraries, and laboratories adequate?
3. What teaching methods does the school use? For example, are most classes taught by a professor with a small group of students or by a graduate student with a large auditorium of students? Are the classes lecture- or discussion-focused? What is the average size of each class?
4. What is the standing of the school? Is it accredited? What is the standing of the college or department of the school in which I intend to do most of my work?
5. What are the school’s tuition, fees, and living expenses? Are opportunities available for earning all, or part of, my expenses while I attend school?
6. Does the school offer the extracurricular (nonacademic) activities in which I am interested?
7. How is the school located with regard to transportation, living quarters, and general conveniences? Or will the school allow me to take classes and earn a degree using online courses?
Entrance requirements
of the various universities and colleges may differ considerably. In general, they require satisfactory completion of a high school curriculum. Most universities and colleges require that first-year students have taken certain courses in high school. Many schools will not admit students whose high school grades are below a certain average. Many institutions require students to take standardized tests, such as the SAT or ACT in the United States. Some schools only accept students who score at or above a certain level on these standardized tests. Colleges and universities state their entrance requirements in their catalogs and on their websites.
People without a high school diploma should not assume that higher education is closed to them. Many colleges and universities admit men and women who have not completed high school. This allows the schools to serve an increasing number of adults seeking continuing education. Before enrolling such applicants, the university or college evaluates their work experience and reviews their scores on special tests. These tests are designed to measure whether a person’s knowledge is equivalent to that of an average high school graduate.
Accrediting.
A prospective college student should know the standing of the institution he or she intends to enter. Colleges and universities in the United States are accredited by six regional accrediting authorities. They are the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, the New England Association of Schools and Colleges, the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, and the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. These authorities base their judgment on the equipment, financial status, requirements, student achievement, and teaching standards of the schools. The authorities are recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation.
Professional societies accredit the various professional schools. For example, the Liaison Committee on Medical Education accredits medical schools. State boards of education also accredit schools in their states. Students may use credits from approved schools in order to obtain teaching certificates and professional licenses within the state.
For a list of the accredited, degree-granting universities and colleges in any U.S. state except Alaska or Wyoming, see the Universities and colleges table in the separate World Book article on the state. A similar table appears in the articles on Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico. For the accredited universities and colleges in Alaska and Wyoming, see the Schools section in each of the articles on those states. See also the World Book article on Australia (Education), Canada (Education), and New Zealand (Education) for a discussion of higher education in these nations.
College costs
vary widely. Most college catalogs list the average living costs for one year, the tuition, and other fees. In the mid-2020’s, the average cost of tuition, fees, room, and board at public universities was about $24,000 for state residents. The cost for nonresidents was about $42,000. The cost at private universities averaged about $56,000 for all students.
Working during school.
Many college students earn all or part of their expenses. Many students have part-time jobs while they attend school, such as working in stores and restaurants. Most schools offer students jobs, such as waiting on tables in dormitories or working in the library. Schools often operate employment bureaus to help find part-time jobs for their students. Some students work during their summer vacations, and others drop out of college for a time to work.
Financial help.
Students may receive support for all or a part of their college expenses through various aid programs. These programs include scholarships and fellowships; federal, state, and private loan programs; and benefits for veterans and certain other groups such as war orphans. There are so many programs of this kind that almost every college and university has a financial aid office to serve its students. A prospective student who needs financial assistance should consult this office at the schools he or she is considering. In general, there are enough financial aid programs to make it possible for any person to attend some college or university in spite of financial problems.
Kinds of universities and colleges
Universities and colleges in the United States may be classified as (1) those operating under private sponsorship, and (2) those operating under public sponsorship. Many private institutions are associated with a religion. Public institutions may be sponsored by local government, state government, or the federal government. The military academies are examples of federally supported institutions. Many private liberal arts colleges are associated with a religion, but most privately sponsored universities are not. Most public universities are sponsored by state governments. Most junior or community colleges are sponsored by local governments.
Income.
All universities and colleges receive funds from a variety of sources. Private colleges depend primarily on student fees, endowments (gifts that produce income), and donated money for their operating income. Public institutions also have these sources but depend mainly on state and local taxes for operating funds. Both public and private institutions may receive federal funds for research activities. The federal government distributes aid among colleges and universities according to various formulas. These formulas are based on the number of students in scholarship and loan programs, and on the enrollment of graduate students and veterans.
Governing boards.
Most universities and colleges are controlled by a board of trustees or a board of regents. Boards of trustees of private institutions usually elect their own members. Religious officials may elect the trustees of a school associated with a religion. The alumni association of a private institution often elects some of the trustees. The trustees of public institutions are usually appointed by the governor of the state. The voters sometimes elect the trustees or regents.
Boards of trustees or regents approve educational policies. They also appoint the chief administrative officer of the institution. In some states, coordinating committees and boards exercise supervision over those institutions financially assisted by the state.
Except for seminaries, most colleges associated with a religion admit students of any religion. Some of them expect all students to attend chapel exercise and to study some religious courses. But some religious colleges apply these rules only to students of the same religious faith.
In the United States, the federal government has encouraged the development of universities and colleges since the time of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. The Morrill Act of 1862 provided land grants to all states to support colleges that, among other subjects, would teach agriculture and the mechanical arts. In some instances, these land grants were given to existing state universities. In other cases, new institutions were established. Many are now major universities.
Seven Canadian provinces sponsor and support universities. Some provinces have also founded technical, agricultural, and junior colleges. The first provincial university was the University of Toronto. It was founded in 1827 as King’s College.
Australia’s oldest university, the University of Sydney, was founded in 1850 by an act of the New South Wales legislature. New Zealand’s oldest institution, the University of Otago, was founded in 1869 by the Otago Provincial Council.
School organization
Campus
is the land on which a college or university stands. The main buildings on a campus usually include classroom buildings, an administration building, a library, laboratories, a gymnasium, an athletic field and stadium, and dormitories. Many institutions have a building, often called a union, where social gatherings, plays, and dances may be held. Many of today’s universities and colleges have more than one campus.
Administration.
The organization of state, provincial, and city-supported institutions is generally about the same as that of other universities and colleges. They usually offer about the same courses of study, although state institutions often emphasize technical and professional education more than private schools.
In most cases, a president or chancellor is the chief administrator of a university or college. Other officials handle educational programs, registration, management of funds, and collection of tuition. A dean of students helps direct discipline and advise students.
Each college or separate school of a university generally has an academic dean or director. He or she leads the faculty in preparing the course of study for the college or school, and takes part in university planning.
Faculty
includes the teachers of a college or university. A college’s faculty is divided into departments. Each department deals with one general course of study, such as English, mathematics, or physics. Each department has a chair, who is usually a professor. Under the chairman are other professors, associate professors, assistant professors, and instructors. Some departments also have teaching fellows or research fellows. These are graduate students who teach or do research part-time. Some faculties include scientists or other workers whose main activity is research, not teaching. Their research is supported by the institution or by funds granted the institution by individuals or groups having specific research interests. The institutions do much research under contract with the federal government.
The student body
of a university or college is divided into graduates and undergraduates. Graduates have already received their bachelor’s degree and are working more or less independently for a master’s or doctor’s degree. Undergraduates are studying for their bachelor’s degree. The undergraduates belong to one of four classes—first-year, sophomore, junior, and senior—according to year of study. Most schools also admit special students. These students take a number of courses, but do not work toward a degree.
The academic calendar
is the program of a school year. It is divided according to one of three systems. The most common system divides the calendar into two semesters of about 16 weeks each. The first semester begins in August or September. The second semester begins in January or early February. The school year ends in May or June with commencement, or graduation exercises (see Graduation). In addition, many schools hold a six- to eight-week summer session. By attending school all year, students may graduate in three years instead of four.
In the quarter system, the year is divided into four quarters of 10, 11, or 12 weeks each. The first quarter begins in the fall. Winter holidays come between the first and second quarters, and spring holidays between the second and third. Many students do not attend the fourth, or summer, quarter. The trimester system divides the year into three trimesters of about 15 weeks each.
Selecting courses
Curriculum.
The courses given by a college or university are called the school’s curriculum. The catalog of the institution outlines the complete curriculum. It gives the requirements for taking each course, as well as the credits given. Each course is designated as giving a specified number of credits. These usually equal the number of class hours devoted each week to the course. For example, a course that meets three times a week usually gives three credits toward graduation. Schools using the semester calendar require about 120 credits for graduation. Between 30 and 40 of the required credits must be earned in the student’s major subject.
Institutions vary considerably in the amount of freedom given students in selecting their courses. Almost all colleges and universities have a certain number of required subjects. Students usually can also choose nonrequired courses called electives. Liberal arts colleges usually give a student more opportunity to choose courses than do professional schools.
Undergraduate study.
The programs of study provided by universities and colleges are divided into undergraduate and graduate levels. Some colleges offer few, if any, graduate programs. Undergraduate programs usually require four years to complete. Some engineering programs and most architectural programs require five years.
Graduate study
may be in the arts and sciences, or in a profession. Such study ordinarily begins only after a person has completed undergraduate study. Some professional fields will only admit a student who has completed undergraduate study. This is generally true of medicine, law, dentistry, and theology.
Graduate study is more intensive and specialized than undergraduate study. It usually involves more reading and some research experience. The time required to earn a graduate degree is usually three years in law and theology and four years in medicine. But some graduate programs may be completed in one or two years.
Degrees.
The bachelor of arts or bachelor of science degree is the common degree for completing a four- or five-year program. One or two years of graduate study are usually required for the master of arts or master of science degree. A doctor’s degree signifies more extensive graduate study. Many institutions also award honorary degrees for outstanding achievement in a profession or in public service. See Degree, College .
College life
College life gives students a welcome measure of independence. But students should realize that new responsibilities go with this independence. They must balance hard work with recreation, allow enough time and energy for social activities, and learn to use to the best advantage the opportunities their school offers.
Residence.
Most colleges that offer bachelor’s degrees have residence halls or dormitories. Dormitory life offers many opportunities for students to make friends. Community colleges generally do not have dormitories. Some schools also have student-run residences called cooperatives. In these, the students can cut expenses by doing their own housework. Students may also live in private homes or apartments.
Many students live with their parents and commute (travel daily) between home and campus. Some colleges and universities whose campuses are in large cities provide commuter centers, where students who commute may spend free time while on campus.
Fraternities and sororities
have houses at many schools. These groups choose their own members according to rules set up by the school. Educators do not agree on the value of the fraternity and sorority system. Some approve the social advantages of membership in these organizations. Others believe they tend to dominate college life and to become undemocratic. Some colleges prohibit social fraternities and sororities on their campuses. See Fraternity; Sorority.
Instruction.
First-year students find they have much more time to do as they choose in college than they had in high school. Classes generally take up only about 15 hours each week, although there may be additional hours of laboratory work. The rest of the time between classes is free for study or recreation.
Most classes are lecture or discussion groups. In larger institutions, lectures may be given to hundreds of students at a time, sometimes with the help of closed-circuit television. Discussion groups, or seminars, are much smaller. Students often work on individual projects outside of class and report on them to the group.
Many universities and colleges offer courses known as individualized-study or self-directed courses. Such courses have no formal classroom sessions. Students work independently on assignments outlined by course materials. They complete the work at their own pace, under the guidance of a faculty member. In this kind of course, the student may use computers, individually assigned laboratory booths, and other learning aids.
Libraries.
University and college libraries are storehouses of knowledge. Some hold several million volumes. The library must be used to the fullest extent for a student to receive the greatest benefit from a course. Routine classwork can only scratch the surface of any field of knowledge. Students can round out their education only by consistent and intelligent independent reading. See Library (College and university libraries).
Research and laboratory work.
The college teacher tries to do more than merely hand the student facts to memorize. It is far more important to develop the student’s ability to find information and to learn to think intelligently. For this reason, the teacher tries to direct the student in independent study and research by recommending books for outside reading and by suggesting new avenues of study in a certain field. Students in the sciences and engineering have laboratories in which to work. World-famous scientists direct some of these laboratories. In them, they have made many important discoveries, often with the help of graduate students. For example, much of the original work on the use of nuclear energy was done in the laboratories of the University of Chicago and the University of California.
Extracurricular activities
outside the normal routine of classes and study help develop the student’s personality and provide a proper balance for the daily routine. Athletics are one of many possible activities. Students may also work on the staffs of school newspapers and magazines. They may take part in such activities as theater, music, debating, religion, and student government.
History
European universities.
Modern universities had their origin in Europe during the 1100’s. But European universities were not the first in the world. The Arabs had universities at earlier dates. Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo in about 970, is one of the oldest universities in the world still operating.
European universities developed from the cathedral and monastery schools. Their development took place so slowly that it is difficult to know the point at which they became universities. Many scholars believe the oldest European university is the University of Bologna, Italy. It came into existence about 1100. The University of Paris developed in the late 1100’s. Many other universities appeared in Europe in the 1200’s and the 1300’s.
These first schools were founded largely to serve the professions. They provided the first unified teaching of law, medicine, and theology. The courses of study gradually broadened. During the Renaissance in the 1400’s, the universities helped direct the revival of interest in Greek and Roman learning. From this revival developed the modern concept of the liberal arts curriculum.
First universities in the Americas.
The first university in the Western Hemisphere, the Autonomous University of Santo Domingo, was founded in the Dominican Republic in 1538. The Major National University of San Marcos at Lima, Peru, was founded in 1551, as was the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Other universities appeared shortly afterward in the other Spanish colonies.
The first university planned in what is now the United States was at Henricopolis, Virginia. It was authorized in 1619, but plans were dropped after Indian attacks in 1622. Harvard University is the oldest active school of higher education in the United States. It was founded in 1636. Canada’s oldest university, Université Laval (Laval University), was founded as the Seminary of Quebec in 1663. It became a university in 1852. Canada’s first English-speaking university was established in 1789. It was the University of King’s College at Windsor, Nova Scotia.
Higher education in the United States began when knowledge was limited. The modern scientific spirit had not yet developed. The early settlers looked upon colleges chiefly as a means of training ministers.
Many small religious colleges were founded during the 1700’s and 1800’s, particularly in the Middle West. These colleges were general rather than specialized. They taught liberal arts rather than technical subjects. Early in U.S. history, some leaders saw the need for education that went beyond religious concerns. The state university was one response to this need.
Another development was the granting of land in new territories for the establishment of schools. Wealthy citizens also gave gifts for the founding of nonreligious schools. A number of schools that had been established by religion also came under private control.
Growth of specialization.
During the 1800’s and through the mid-1900’s, specialization in knowledge increased. Many colleges were created to train students in such fields as agriculture, medicine, engineering, and business. Specialization also resulted in an increased emphasis on advanced study. As a result, graduate schools were established at many larger schools. In turn, professional and research interests came to dominate all other educational interests. Education for professions overshadowed the liberal arts.
Recent developments.
Some of the challenges facing higher education at the start of the 2000’s were created by its growing cost. At the same time, technology created many new opportunities for higher education.
Higher education’s rising cost.
Experts believe there are a number of reasons that the cost of higher education in developed nations is rising. Like all businesses, universities face rising costs for basic goods. Further, salaries of some workers in higher education, such as administrative workers, have risen through the years. In the United States, state governments have been cutting the amount of money they give to state colleges and universities. Budget cuts to community colleges have been particularly deep. All of these factors have caused the cost of tuition to rise.
At public schools, increasing tuitions are usually used to fund operating expenses once funded by tax money. Tuition increases at private colleges and universities are generally used to provide aid to less wealthy students. Even with an increase in the amount of available student aid, high tuitions have made it more difficult for individuals and families of modest means to afford a college education.
Student loan debt.
The rise in the cost of higher education created a greater demand for student loans. More students left college with large amounts of debt than ever before. Often, college graduates were unable to find jobs that allowed them to pay off their student loans. In 2007, Congress created a program called the Income-Based Repayment Plan to try to help students in debt. The plan limited a student’s monthly loan payments to no more than 15 percent of his or her income. In spite of such assistance, by the 2010’s, the rate of U.S. college graduates who had defaulted on (failed to make payments on) their student loans was nearly 10 percent.
Online learning.
A major development in higher education in the 2000’s has been the adoption of technology by colleges and universities to support teaching and learning. Today, millions of students are enrolled in online courses. In online courses, students hear lectures from professors, “meet” with classmates, and submit papers via the Internet. When students interact with one another at the same time, the course is called synchronous. When students are not interacting at the same time, it is called asynchronous. In some instances, courses may be hybrid, or blended, meaning that students and instructor meet both face to face and online. Such courses enjoy the advantage of building a greater sense of community among students. It is possible, however, for a student to earn a certificate or degree fully online.
The audience for online education has grown enormously in the 2010’s with the creation of the open education resources (OER) movement. Many elite universities have made their courses available online at no cost. Often, elite universities do not grant credits that may be applied toward a degree or certificate for their online courses.
Universities that have adopted OER include Harvard University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Stanford University, and the University of California at Berkeley. The numbers of students enrolled in a single course have grown significantly in some cases. Some courses have proved so popular that more than 100,000 students from all over the world enroll in them at a time. Courses of this size are called massive open online courses (MOOC’s).
For-profit universities
are educational institutions that operate as private, profit-seeking businesses. For-profit colleges have been a part of higher education in the United States for almost two centuries. For most of that time, such small- to medium-sized education businesses have offered classes and certification in vocational fields, such as typing or bookkeeping. Today, many private for-profit universities have grown to be among the largest providers of higher education in the United States.
Some for-profit universities offer courses only online, but others offer both face-to-face and online courses. Generally these institutions offer career-oriented degree programs at all levels; noncredit certificates; and associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degrees. Congress and the media have been critical of these institutions. For-profit universities have been accused of using misleading recruitment practices—for example, promising meaningful job opportunities that do not exist.
Vocational study and the liberal arts.
There is a tension between the “useful” and the “liberal arts” in modern universities and colleges. In the United States, there has been a shift from liberal arts studies to vocational studies. Several developments indicate this trend. Undergraduate enrollments in professional programs, such as business degrees, are increasing. The number of professional master’s and doctoral degrees offered and granted is also increasing. Liberal arts colleges are making efforts to introduce courses into the curriculum that will bridge the liberal arts and professional preparation. And disagreement has arisen in universities between professional schools and arts and sciences departments regarding course requirements. This last problem often results in students taking five-year undergraduate programs to satisfy both liberal arts requirements and the professional program requirements in such areas as nursing and engineering.
