Vikings were pirates and warriors who raided parts of Europe from the late 700’s to about 1100. Viking sailors also explored the North Atlantic Ocean and even reached America. Such deeds have given this period of European history the name the Viking Age. Vikings were also called Norsemen or Northmen.
The Vikings lived in Scandinavia. Scandinavia is a region of Europe that today includes Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Vikings conquered or looted parts of England, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Russia, Scotland, and Spain. Later, they set up trading centers and trade routes. Viking ships carried settlers to Iceland and to Greenland, which had been unknown to Europeans until then. Leif Eriksson, a Viking explorer, landed in North America about 500 years before Christopher Columbus did in 1492. The Vikings established a settlement in North America, but it lasted only a few years.
The name Viking did not come into use until after the Viking Age. It probably came from Vik, the name of a pirate center in southern Norway during Viking times. Among the Scandinavians, the expression to go a-viking meant to fight as a pirate or warrior. Other Europeans called the Scandinavians Norsemen, Northmen, or Danes. Swedish Vikings settled in eastern Europe, including part of what became Russia. Many historians believe that the Swedes became known there as the Rus, and that Russia was named for them.
Few Scandinavians of the Viking Age spent all their time going a-viking. The majority worked as farmers or in other peaceful occupations. These skills allowed the Vikings to establish outposts in places such as Iceland where there were few other people.
The Viking Age began during a period of rapid population growth in Scandinavia. Historians speculate that this growth reduced the amount of available farmland. The shortage of land led many Vikings to seek wealth or a new place to live. At the same time, Scandinavians developed new shipbuilding techniques that enabled their ships to travel farther than ever before.
The Vikings had no direct effect on the history of America. But their conquests in Europe influenced relations between England and France for hundreds of years after the Viking Age.
Viking life
Ancestry and population.
The ancestors of the Vikings were Germanic peoples who once lived in northwestern Europe. Beginning about 2000 B.C., these peoples moved to what are now Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. A separate group of Vikings developed in each of these areas. The three groups shared the same general culture.
The Vikings spoke a Germanic language that had two major dialects. They used an alphabet made up of characters called runes. Early runes consisted chiefly of straight lines arranged singly or in combinations of two or more.
The Vikings lived on farms or in villages. A king or chief ruled each Viking community. The people were divided into three social classes—nobles, freemen, and slaves. The nobles included the kings, chiefs, and other people who had wealth or were descendants of honored ancestors. The free men and women included farmers, merchants, and others who served the ruler or worked for themselves. Many of the slaves were Scandinavians whose ancestors had been enslaved. Others were Europeans who had been captured in Viking raids and battles. The majority of Vikings stayed in one class for life.
Each Viking community had a governing council called a Thing. This council was made up of the community’s nobles and freemen. It made laws, decided whether to go to war, and held trials to judge criminals. Its decisions were more important than rulings of the king or chief.
Economic activities.
The majority of Vikings were farmers. They grew barley, oats, rye, and fruits and vegetables. They also raised cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep. Other Vikings worked in fishing, metalworking, shipbuilding, and woodcarving. In the largest communities, many people made their living as merchants. Viking traders sailed to most parts of the known world. They traded farm products, furs, various other goods, and slaves for such products as gold, silk, silver, and weapons. 
Daily life.
Parents arranged most Viking marriages. The husband ruled the Viking family. But Viking women had more rights than did the women of other European societies of that time. For example, any Viking woman could own land or other property. A wife had a right to share in the wealth that her husband gained. Viking law permitted a married woman to get a divorce whenever she wished.
Three or more generations of a Viking family lived together. The family was bound together by honor. If one member of the family was disgraced, the entire family was disgraced. The disgrace extended even to the family’s ancestors. Conflicts between individuals of different families often turned into feuds between the families.
The Vikings became known for burial customs that involved great ceremony. In what is known as a boat burial, Vikings were laid to rest in a rowing or fishing boat that was then buried. Some wealthy Viking men and women were buried in full-sized ships. Many of the dead person’s possessions, including beds, jewelry, and weapons, were placed in the ship. In some cases, the person’s dogs and even slaves were buried alive in the grave.
Food.
The Vikings usually ate in the morning and again in the evening. They used spoons and knives, but had no forks. Most of the food, including beef, bread, cheese, eggs, and milk, came from their farms.
The Vikings also hunted and fished for food. Hunters supplied meat from deer, elk, seals, whales, and wild birds. The fish catch included cod, herring, salmon, and trout.
Clothing.
Most Viking men wore two basic garments. They wore trousers that reached to the knee or ankle. Over the trousers, they wore a long-sleeved pullover shirt that reached below the waist. Viking women wore loose-fitting dresses that hung almost to the ankles. The dresses were made of linen or wool. Most Vikings wore leather shoes.
Housing.
Most Viking houses were wood or stone structures with slanted roofs. Some houses had only one room. Others had three or more. Roofs were covered with shingles, sod, or straw. Each home included a hearth that provided heat and light as well as a place to cook. Viking houses had few or no windows. The husband used a chair called the high seat. The rest of the family sat on benches. Raised platforms on either side of the hearth served as beds.
Religion
played an important role in Viking life. The Vikings worshiped a number of gods. The most important ones were Odin, Thor, Frey, and Freyja.
Odin, also known as Woden, was chief among the Norse gods and goddesses. He was the father of Thor and other gods. Odin lived in Asgard, the home of the gods. The Vikings believed that if they died fighting, they would go to a hall in Asgard called Valhalla. There, they could fight all day and dine all night. Wednesday (Woden’s Day) was named in honor of Odin.
Thor, ruler of the sky, was the god of thunder and lightning. He was the most popular Viking god because his life reflected the values of Viking warriors. Thursday was named after Thor.
Frey was the god of agriculture and fertility. His twin sister, Freyja, was the goddess of love and fertility. Frey ensured the success of a harvest. Freyja blessed a marriage.
Contact between the Vikings and European Christians led to the end of the Norse religion. English and German missionaries helped make Christianity the chief religion in Scandinavia by the early 1100’s.
Cultural life and recreation.
Poetry and storytelling were popular among the Vikings. Favorite subjects included the gods and Viking battles. Court poets called skalds entertained Viking kings and their guests. Their verses often praised the kings for generosity or bravery.
Many Viking artists used a style in which animals were portrayed with twisted bodies. A favorite subject was the gripping beast. It was pictured wildly gripping its throat, sides, or other parts of its body. Some Swedish artists carved animals, interlace (weaving patterns), and other figures on limestone slabs known as picture stones. 
The Scandinavians worked skillfully at many crafts. They were especially skilled at metalworking and woodcarving. They produced bracelets, necklaces, pins, and other jewelry. Much of the jewelry was made from silver. Viking woodcarvers decorated homes, ships, and wagons. They created elegant, detailed carvings of beasts and warriors.
For recreation, the Vikings especially liked rowing, skiing, swimming, and wrestling. They also enjoyed horse races and board games.
Shipbuilding and navigation
The sea almost surrounded the Vikings’ Scandinavian homelands. In addition, hundreds of fiords (inlets to the sea) cut into the coastline. As a result, water travel was the main form of transportation in the region. The Vikings became a seafaring people.
The Vikings as shipbuilders.
The Vikings ranked among the best shipbuilders of their time. They built their ships out of wood cut from the vast Scandinavian forests. Viking shipbuilders improved the sailing ability of ships by adding a keel. The keel was a long, narrow piece of wood that formed the backbone of a ship. It extended into the water along the center length of the ship. The keel reduced a ship’s rolling motion. By doing so, it improved the ship’s speed. A faster ship could travel farther without stopping for supplies. The keel also made it easier to steer the ship. 
The size of a Viking ship varied, depending on whether the ship was used for trade or for battle. Trading ships, called knorrs, were about 50 feet (15 meters) long. Warships, also known as longships, ranged in length from about 65 to 95 feet (20 to 29 meters). They were about 17 feet (5 meters) wide.
Viking ships sailed well in both rough seas and calm waters. They were usually light enough to enter shallow rivers. At sea, the Vikings depended mainly on the wind and the ship’s large woolen sail for power. On a river, rowers powered the ship. A warship had from 15 to over 30 pairs of oars. The prow (front end) of a Viking warship curved upward. Many prows ended with a carving of the head of a dragon or snake. See Ship (Viking ships).
The Vikings as navigators.
Early Viking navigators depended primarily on sightings of the sun and the stars to determine direction and approximate location at sea. By the late 900’s, however, the Vikings had learned how to determine their latitude. They made a table of figures that showed the sun’s midday height for each week of the year. By using a measuring stick and this table, a navigator could estimate the latitude of the ship.
Viking navigators also relied on landmarks. The Vikings sailed from Norway to Greenland using sightings of the Shetland and Faroe islands and Iceland as landmarks.
Scholars do not know all the methods Viking sailors used to navigate. They may have used crystals to locate the sun on overcast days. They may have found their directions with the help of ravens, other types of birds, or whales. Whatever the method, the Vikings’ navigation skills enabled them to travel throughout Europe and the North Atlantic.
Warfare
Viking warriors enjoyed fighting. They were bold and adventurous. They were also brutal and fearsome. They killed women and children as well as men. Often, what they did not steal, they burned. The Vikings so terrorized other Europeans that one French church created a special prayer for protection: “God, deliver us from the fury of the Northmen.” 
The cruelest and most feared Viking warrior was called a berserker or berserk. Some historians believe berserkers were raging madmen. Others think they were normal people who became wild and fearless after eating mushrooms or other foods that contained drugs. The term berserk is still used to describe a person who acts wildly.
Battle strategy and tactics.
Most Viking warfare was waged by small raiding parties. Such forces ranged from 2 to 10 ships. Each carried about 30 raiders. Large-scale Viking invasions could involve hundreds of warships. Thousands of fighters landed, overpowered the defenders, and overran the land. In this way, the Vikings conquered land in England and France.
Targets of Viking raids included small, poorly defended towns and isolated farms. The main bounty of these raids was cattle, horses, and food. Churches and monasteries were also favorite targets. They contained much treasure and were largely defenseless. Many held richly ornamented articles, such as ivory croziers (ornamental staffs) and books covered with gold and precious stones. High-ranking church officials could be captured and ransomed. Other captured monks could be sold into slavery.
The Vikings became known for surprise attacks and quick retreats. They could row their light, swift ships into shallow rivers and then drag them ashore. They often struck so fast that their victims had no time to defend themselves.
Weapons and armor.
The Vikings fought mainly with axes, bows and arrows, spears, and swords. The broad axe had a long handle. Its large flat blade had a curved cutting edge. The Viking warrior used two hands to swing the broad axe at an opponent. The Viking sword had a broad two-edged blade of iron or steel. The fighter swung the sword with a chopping or hacking motion, aiming at an opponent’s arms or legs. 
Most Viking warriors carried round wooden shields for protection. Many raiders also wore armor made from thick layers of animal hides. Some of the hides had bone sewn into them for added protection. Viking warriors also wore cone-shaped helmets made of leather. Viking leaders wore metal helmets and coats of mail (metal armor). Artists often picture Viking warriors wearing helmets with cattle horns on the sides. But the Vikings never had such helmets.
Exploration and conquest
Scholars link the start of the Viking rampage with several conditions in Scandinavia at the time. Perhaps the most important was a rapidly growing population. Population growth led to overcrowding and a shortage of farmland. In addition, family feuds and local wars made life in Scandinavia difficult for many Vikings. Raiding and conquering provided many Vikings with a means to obtain wealth and honor.
The Norwegian Vikings
began the Viking Age. In June 793, Norwegian raiders attacked and looted the monastery of Lindisfarne on an island off England. The Norwegians then raided England, Ireland, the Isle of Man, and Scotland.
Ireland’s many fertile farms and rich churches and monasteries made it an attractive target. The Irish city of Dublin was established as a winter base for Viking raiders in 841. It later became an important Viking seaport. Turgeis, a Norwegian pirate chief, led raids throughout eastern Ireland and along the River Shannon.
During the mid-800’s, Norwegian raiders struck targets farther from their homeland. They looted and burned towns in France, Italy, and Spain. In the late 800’s, many of the Norwegians turned their attention from Europe to the North Atlantic. Norwegian settlers began to migrate to Iceland about 870. Thousands of Vikings had settled in Iceland by the mid-900’s.
About 982, Erik the Red, a Norwegian who had been living in Iceland, sailed with his family to Greenland. About 985, he persuaded several hundred Icelanders to settle in Greenland. Soon afterward, Bjarni Herjolfsson, a Viking sea captain, became the first known European to see the mainland of North America. He made the sighting after sailing off course during a voyage from Iceland to Greenland. About 1000, Leif Eriksson, a son of Erik the Red, led an expedition westward from Greenland to find the new territory. He and his crew landed somewhere on the east coast of North America. They spent the winter there. The Vikings made wine from grapes they found. Leif called the area Vinland, or Wineland. 
The Vikings established a colony in Vinland. In time, however, they were driven away by Indians and did not return. Some historians believe that Vinland was in Maine or Massachusetts. Others think Vinland was on the Canadian island of Newfoundland. According to the sagas (stories of heroic deeds) written by Icelanders long after Viking times, a number of settlements were established in Vinland.
The main evidence of the Vikings’ presence on the mainland of North America comes from remains of a Viking settlement found at L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, in 1960. There, scientists discovered house foundations like those of Vikings in Iceland and Greenland. They also found several small Viking objects. 
The Danish Vikings
began their raids in the early 800’s. They looted and burned towns on the coasts of what are now Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. In 865, the Danes invaded England. They conquered all the English kingdoms except Wessex. They settled in the eastern half of the country. Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, won major victories against the Vikings in 878 and 886. He forced the Vikings to withdraw to the eastern third of England. This area became known as the Danelaw.
During the late 800’s, Danish Vikings began to attack French towns again. In 886, King Charles the Fat of France paid the Vikings a huge treasure to end their yearlong siege of Paris. In 911, King Charles III of France and a Viking chieftain named Rollo agreed to the treaty of St. Clair-sur-Epte. According to the treaty, Rollo accepted Christianity. He also pledged to support the French king. In turn, Charles granted the Vikings control of much of the area in France now known as Normandy (Land of the Northmen). See Normans.
During the late 900’s, the Danish Vikings renewed their interest in England. Ethelred II, also spelled Aethelred, had become king of England in 978. He was only about 10 years old when he took the throne. The English nobility refused to support Ethelred. As a result, England’s defense against invasion was much weakened. In 994, Danes led by Sweyn Forkbeard, a son of King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark, went to war against England. In 1016, Sweyn’s son Canute finally brought England under Danish control. The Danes ruled England until 1042.
The Swedish Vikings
began to raid towns along rivers in eastern Europe during the early 800’s. They set up trade centers in parts of modern-day Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. The people of these areas, mostly East Slavs, called the Swedish Vikings the Rus.
The Swedes gained control of the key trade routes between the Baltic and Black seas. By the late 800’s, the East Slavic towns of Novgorod (now Velikiy Novgorod) and Kyiv (also spelled Kiev) had become Swedish strongholds. In time, Kyiv became the center of what modern historians call Kievan Rus, the first state of the East Slavs.
By the mid-900’s, the Rus had adopted many of the customs of the East Slavic peoples. About 988, the Rus prince Vladimir I (also known as Volodymyr) destroyed all the symbols of the Viking religion in Kyiv. He made Christianity the official religion of the Rus.
Viking influence
The creation of three strong Viking kingdoms in Scandinavia led to the development of three nations—Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. When the Vikings adopted Christianity, they brought Scandinavia into the mainstream of European civilization.
The Norsemen also influenced developments in England and France. The Viking invasions of England in the 800’s and 900’s helped unify and strengthen England. The establishment of Normandy in France in 911 was the source of years of conflict between France and England. William the Conqueror led a Norman army to victory over the English. He became king of England in 1066. William was a Norman descendant of the Viking chieftain Rollo. England and France later fought for control of Normandy during the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453).
The Vikings had a lasting effect on Iceland. They established a permanent settlement there that reflects Viking culture to this day. Although the Vikings established Vinland in North America, they did not influence later European exploration of the New World. Vinland remained unknown to the rest of Europe until long after Christopher Columbus had gained credit as the European discoverer of America.
