Andhra Pradesh (pop. 49,386,799) is a large state in southeastern India. Set in the heart of peninsular India, it lies entirely within the tropics. It has a longer stretch of coastline than any other Indian state. The Bay of Bengal forms the eastern boundary of the state. To the northeast is Odisha (formerly Orissa), and Telangana is to the north. Karnataka forms the western border, with Tamil Nadu to the south. Before June 2014, Telangana was part of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad, which lies in Telangana and had long been the capital of Andhra Pradesh, also became the capital of Telangana. The government of Andhra Pradesh is building a new state capital called Amaravati.
People and government
People.
Most of the people of Andhra Pradesh are Dravidian speakers. Telugu, the state language, is one of the four main Dravidian languages of India.
Over 85 percent of the people speak Telugu, but there are also important minorities. Many people in the far south speak Tamil, and there are some Kanarese speakers near the border with Karnataka. In urban areas, there are large numbers of Urdu speakers. They represent the area’s Muslim influence, which spread rapidly after the Turks conquered Delhi in the early 1200’s.
There are a number of industrial towns in Andhra Pradesh, but most of the people live in rural areas. Some of the population consists of ethnic groups who live in remote areas. The Chenchus, for example, live in the Vellikonda Hills of the southeast. Forest cover there is thin, and the Chenchus live by herding livestock and collecting produce such as bamboo and honey.
About 90 percent of the people of Andhra Pradesh are Hindus. However, there has been a Muslim population in the region for nearly 500 years. Muslims make up about 10 percent of the people. Many came to work in the courts of the Muslim rulers of Hyderabad and neighboring Muslim kingdoms. Some came from Persia and Arabia. Other Muslims came from northern India. Most belonged to the Sunni sect, but there was an important minority of Shī`ite Muslims as well. Christians account for about 1 percent of the total population.
Government.
Andhra Pradesh has 25 elected members in the Lok Sabha (lower house) and 11 nominated representatives in the Rajya Sabha (upper house) of the Indian national parliament. Andhra Pradesh has a bicameral (two-chambered) state legislature, which meets in Amaravati. The Vidhan Sabha (lower house) has 175 members, and the Vidhan Parishad (upper house) has 58 seats.
Economy
Agriculture.
There is intensive irrigation and farming in the deltas of the Godavari and Krishna rivers. Rice is the main food crop, but corn, millet, and pulses (crops yielding pods of edible seeds) are also grown. Cash crops, such as sugar cane and tobacco, are also important.
In the dry interior, farming is much more difficult. Rainfall is low and unreliable, so the farmers must grow hardy crops. On land that is not irrigated, they grow gram (lentils), millet, and sorghum. Oilseeds, especially castor and peanuts, and tobacco are the most important cash crops.
There has been much research in Andhra Pradesh into ways of improving dry farming. The United Nations (UN) set up the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics near Hyderabad in the early 1970’s. This institution has become the world’s leading research center dealing with agriculture in tropical “dryland.” It has successfully developed crop breeding and experimental farming techniques to improve yields.
Manufacturing.
Factory employment has grown rapidly in the state. Factories in the state manufacture aeronautical parts, cement, chemicals, cigarettes, cotton goods, fertilizers, machine tools, and synthetic drugs. Heavy engineering, shipbuilding, and steelmaking are important in the coastal belt, especially at Visakhapatnam.
Andhra Pradesh is famous for some of its handicrafts. Some of the most striking Andhra crafts are Kalamkari paintings (kalam refers to the pen used). These paintings on cloth are produced in the south of the state and have a distinctive style. Indigo and vegetable dyes, such as those extracted from turmeric and pomegranate skin, are used. Hand block-printed textiles are also produced.
Mining.
Andhra Pradesh produces baryte, iron ore, limestone, manganese, and mica.
Transportation and communication.
Andhra Pradesh has a system of rail lines that connect the state to other major cities in India. On the coast, Visakhapatnam is one of the country’s major ports and the eastern headquarters of the Indian Navy. It has facilities for shipbuilding and is an important outlet for exports. Visakhapatnam lies on the Golden Quadrilateral, a national highway that connects Andhra Pradesh to major cities in India. Visakhapatnam has an international airport.
Radio and television have grown rapidly in Andhra Pradesh. There are many daily newspapers in the state, including English-language national dailies.
Land and climate
Location and description.
Andhra Pradesh stretches over 745 miles (1,200 kilometers) along the eastern seaboard of India, and it covers a total area of 61,865 square miles (160,229 square kilometers). It is one of India’s tropical states.
The state has three main regions: the coastal strip, the mountains, and the inland plateau. Irrigation in the flat coastal area has helped to make it the richest agricultural region of the state. The deltas of the Godavari and Krishna rivers have particularly fertile soil. Rice and sugar cane are the most important crops. Immediately inland, a series of mountain ranges, covered with forest or scrub jungle, runs nearly parallel with the coast.
For much of the year, many areas of Andhra Pradesh are hot, dry, and desolate. Although the delta of the Krishna and Godavari rivers retains its lush greenness because of irrigation water, large tracts of the granite plateaus of the interior are baked dry by the hot sun. The natural vegetation reflects the seasonal rainfall pattern and the long periods of drought. In the coastal belt, coconut and palmyra palms are common. On some parts of the shoreline, there are mangroves. Inland, patches of open savannah and dry, open forest remain. Elsewhere, the thin red soils are either cultivated, or have only a thin cover of grasses.
The clearance of the forests has greatly reduced wildlife. Bears, deer, leopards, and tigers are still found in remote areas and in game reserves. Domesticated animals, especially cattle, are common.
Climate.
The average minimum temperature in Andhra Pradesh throughout the year is about 77 °F (25 °C). The average maximum temperature is about 93 °F (34 °C). In May, the hottest month, temperatures can reach over 110 °F (43 °C).
The whole state receives most of its rain during the monsoon season, from June to October (see Monsoon). The northeast of the state receives a total of 40 inches (102 centimeters) of rain per year on average. This is almost twice as much rain as the southwest receives.
Cyclones cause massive damage in the deltas. In 1977, a cyclone caused many thousands of deaths. An equally severe cyclone struck the region in 1990, but far fewer lives were lost because many concrete shelters had been built.
Rivers and lakes.
Two large rivers, the Godavari and the Krishna, drain most of Andhra Pradesh. Both rise close to India’s west coast. The Godavari rises less than 125 miles (200 kilometers) north of Mumbai and flows 870 miles (1,400 kilometers) southeast across the Deccan Plateau. It drains more than 120,000 square miles (310,000 square kilometers) and is the largest of the peninsular rivers. The Krishna rises near Mahabaleshwar at a height of 4,265 feet (1,300 meters). It then flows 870 miles (1,400 kilometers) to the Bay of Bengal. In all, it drains an area of 100,000 square miles (260,000 square kilometers), only the lowest fourth of which is in Andhra Pradesh. The two rivers have the largest watersheds in India after the Ganges. Between them, they irrigate nearly 15 million acres (6 million hectares) of farmland.
Irrigation projects in the state include the construction of many artificial lakes, canals, and water tanks. The Telugo-Ganges irrigation project is intended to supply drinking water to Chennai and irrigation to Rayalaseema and Nellore districts.
The largest lake in the state is behind the Nagarjunasagar Dam on the Krishna. On the delta between the Krishna and the Godavari is Kolleru Lake. During the wet season, this lake covers nearly 100 square miles (260 square kilometers). It is also a bird sanctuary.
History
Early history.
The history of the area corresponding to present-day Andhra Pradesh dates from the Mauryan Empire (see Mauryan Empire). During the reign of Bindusara (297-272 B.C.), second ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, Andhradesa became part of the Mauryan Empire. The emperor Ashoka, his son and successor, refers in his inscriptions to a people called the Andhras (see Ashoka). The first known Andhra dynasty, the Satavahanas, probably held administrative posts under the Mauryas. They came to power when the Mauryan Empire disintegrated, following the death of Ashoka in 232 B.C.
The Satavahanas ruled from about 230 B.C. to A.D. 200. Prathistan (Paithan) was their capital. The Satavahanas encouraged various religious groups and were patrons of Buddhism and Brahmanism. Archaeological finds from Amaravati on the east coast show the great skill and artistry of early Andhra sculptors and builders. Some of the Ajanta cave paintings date from this period. Nagarjunakonda became a center of learning in the A.D. 100’s and 200’s.
After the end of the Satavahana Empire, several dynasties emerged in Andhra. The most prominent were the Pallavas (225-610), the Ikshvakus (250-340), and the Vishnu Kundins (440-610). Fragmented political control continued until the rise of the Kakatiya dynasty (1081-1323). The Kakatiyas ruled all of Andhradesa. Warangal, northeast of the present city of Hyderabad, was their capital.
The southward expansion of the Delhi sultanate ended Kakatiya supremacy. Although the Kakatiya ruler repulsed the initial attempt by Ala-ud-din Khalji to conquer the Deccan, he was defeated in 1309, and became a tributary of the sultan. The Kakatiyas enjoyed a short-lived independence after the death of Ala-ud-din Khalji. However, his successor, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, annexed the Kakatiya kingdom after a five-month war ended in the fall of Warangal in 1323. The rise of the Vijayanagar Empire in the mid-1300’s prevented Turkic expansion farther south (see Vijayanagar Empire).
Medieval period.
Medieval history in the Deccan centers around the struggle for supremacy between the Bahmani and Vijayanagar kingdoms. The whole of Andhradesa, except the Telangana region, formed part of the territory of Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar—the City of Victory—was the capital of this great military empire. One of its most successful rulers, Krishna Deva Raya, was responsible for a period of territorial expansion and economic prosperity. He was renowned as a great warrior, statesman, scholar, builder, and patron of the arts. His kingdom did not survive for long after his death in 1529.
Political and territorial realignment in the Deccan followed the Battle of Talikota in 1565 (in which the army of Vijayanagar was defeated) and the earlier disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom in 1538. The Bahmani kingdom split into five independent principalities. One, Golconda, under Quli Qutb Shah ruled the Telangana region. On the decline of Vijayanagar power, the ruler of Golconda extended his territory to the whole of Andhra, bringing the area under one political authority.
Golconda emerged as an independent kingdom when the Mughal Empire was at its height. The Mughals advanced south, intending to extend their territory into the Deccan. Although the rulers of the Deccan resisted, they were powerless against the Mughals. Golconda was annexed in 1687 and Andhra became a province of the Mughal Empire.
In 1724, the Mughal regional viceroy, Nizam-ul-mulk (governor of the realm) Asaf Jah, carved out his own kingdom, Hyderabad. Asaf Jah and his successors kept the title nizam (governor) but ruled as independent kings until 1948. Hyderabad, comprising almost the whole of present-day Andhra Pradesh, was the most important center of Muslim culture in central and southern India during the 1700’s and 1800’s. The court culture was Islamic, but Hindu culture also flourished.
Colonial period.
From the 1500’s to the 1700’s, the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English vied with each other for commercial privileges and political influence in India, especially southern India. In the 1600’s, the British East India Company, an English trading company, established several important trading centers along the Malabar and Coramandel coasts, including Nizampatam, Masulipatam, Madapollam, and Vizagapatam.
Through the 1700’s, British and French merchants each formed alliances with local powers. At the end of the 1700’s, the British reached an agreement with the nizam of Hyderabad. He accepted British support in exchange for recognition of British rights to trade. By the beginning of the 1800’s, Andhra came under the political control of the British East India Company. The districts of Anantapur, Cuduppa, Nellor, Chittoor, and Kurnool were annexed by the company, and the territory of the nizam was brought under its indirect rule. Hyderabad became one of the 550 princely states which stayed largely independent until 1947.
Colonial rule led to the impoverishment of the Indian people. Anticolonial feelings were first expressed through peasant and rural revolts. Later, a national movement was organized by the educated classes.
Sri Kandukuri Viresalingam Pantulu began a social-religious movement which made possible the emergence of a democratic movement. The writings of Gujaraja Apparao and Unnava Lakshminarayana began a literary renaissance.
The anticolonial movement initiated and organized by the Indian National Congress drew popular support in Andhra. Important leaders in the movement included T. Prakasham, N. Sanjeeva Reddy, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. The Communist movement, which grew as part of the national movement, also had a large following across the region.
Independence.
When India became independent in 1947, the area that became Andhra Pradesh consisted of a part of the British presidency of Madras, which then became part of India, and the nizam of Hyderabad’s state. At first, the nizam attempted to keep Hyderabad independent. But political disturbances in Hyderabad led the Indian government to send its army to the region in September 1948. The nizam turned control of the government over to India, which incorporated the region into the Indian Union. Hyderabad became a state in 1950.
In 1946, Communists in the Telangana region of Hyderabad organized a massive uprising by peasants against their landlords and the state. Between 1946 and 1951, the peasants set up village republics in about 3,000 villages and redistributed land under the guidance of people’s committees. About 4,000 Communists and peasant militants were killed, and more than 10,000 were arrested and imprisoned during the uprising.
Formation of Andhra Pradesh.
Movements for the linguistic reorganization of states were organized throughout the country by the national movement. In Andhra, Potti Sreeramulu, a politician, starved himself to death in 1953 in protest against the government’s refusal to grant the demand for separate statehood. In October of the same year, the government created Andhra out of the Telugu-speaking districts of the Madras presidency. The Visalandhra movement demanded inclusion of Telugu-speaking areas belonging to the former state of Hyderabad. Consequently, the state of Andhra Pradesh was formed in 1956. At that time, what is now the state of Telangana was part of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad became state’s capital.
The Indian National Congress was the dominant political party in the state until 1984. Its influence declined with the emergence of a regional party, the Telugu Desam. Communist parties have considerable influence in some parts of the state.
Recent developments.
In December 2004, a powerful undersea earthquake in the Indian Ocean near the Indonesian island of Sumatra generated a series of large ocean waves called a tsunami. The tsunami’s towering waves killed more than 100 people and damaged much property along the coast of Andhra Pradesh.
For many years, residents of the Telangana region campaigned for the region to be separated from Andhra Pradesh. They argued that Andhra Pradesh benefited from work done in Telangana, but that development in the state was focused elsewhere. Opponents of the plan argued that separating the region from Andhra Pradesh would hurt the economy of Andhra Pradesh. In 2013, the campaign gained the support of the ruling Indian National Congress party. In 2014, India’s government made Telangana a separate state, comprised of 10 districts that had been part of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad, which had been the capital of Andhra Pradesh, became the joint capital of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
In 2015, the government of Andhra Pradesh announced that construction of a new state capital would begin in central Andhra Pradesh. The new capital was named Amaravati, after an ancient Buddhist town. By early 2019, the state legislature, the high court, and other government offices of Andhra Pradesh had moved into a temporary complex in Amaravati. In May 2019, the YSR Congress Party won the state legislative elections. It halted the major construction projects in Amaravati. In 2020, the party passed legislation to split the government’s executive, legislative, and judicial functions between three state capitals in order to spread development through the state. Opponents challenged the plan in court.
