Mahmud of Ghazni (971-1030) was an Afghan ruler who became the first major Muslim invader of India. Though he conducted raids in many parts of northern India, only the Punjab region became part of his empire. The reason for these raids was to capture the wealth held in the temples of Hindu holy cities.
When Mahmud came to power, the Ghaznavid territory included only Ghazni and some other areas of central Afghanistan. Over the course of his reign, Mahmud expanded the empire until it extended as far west as central Persia (now Iran) and as far east as the Punjab. He conducted numerous wars against kingdoms on all sides of his empire, often fighting battles on different sides of the empire in the same year.
Mahmud was born on Nov. 2, 971. He succeeded his father, Sabuktigin, to the throne of Ghazni in 998. He immediately set about expanding his empire, conquering other Afghan territories before setting his sights on targets further afield. In 999, the caliph al-Qadir officially recognized Mahmud’s dominion over the territories he had conquered.
The main power in the Punjab at that time was the Shahiya ruler Jayapala. The Shahiyas, who were a Hindu dynasty from Udabhandapur in northern India, were old enemies of the Ghaznavids. Sabuktigin had fought Jayapala’s armies several times and had seized territory from Jayapala. In 1001, Mahmud also attacked Jayapala near the city of Peshawar, defeating him so badly that Jayapala immolated (sacrificed) himself soon afterward. Seven years later, Mahmud attacked the Punjab again, this time defeating the alliance of north Indian states that Jayapala’s son, Anandapala, had assembled for the battle. It was after this battle that the western Punjab and other northwestern areas, including much of the Indus Valley, were annexed to Mahmud’s empire. Mahmud’s effective control over these areas made it easier for him to conduct raids on other parts of northern India.
The conquest of the Punjab was the last of Mahmud’s invasions that increased his territory in India. His later invasions were mainly raids in search of wealth. Because many Hindu temples at this time held great amounts of wealth, they were the obvious targets. These targets included Kanauj and Mathura. Mahmud often ordered that Hindu temples be destroyed after their wealth was plundered.
In 1024, Mahmud began the series of raids that culminated in his most famous raid, on Somnath, a temple city on the Gujarati coast. Somnath was a major pilgrimage site, and the temple there held great wealth, including heavy chains of gold and thousands of jewels. The battle for Somnath was extremely bloody, with more than 50,000 dead. This was the last of Mahmud’s major expeditions.
The wealth that Mahmud captured in his raids on Indian temples helped finance his expeditions, and it also greatly enriched his capital at Ghazni. Ghazni became a major cultural center in central Asia under Mahmud’s patronage. Mahmud founded a university, a library, and a museum at Ghazni, and he heavily patronized poets, artists, and scholars. Probably the most notable of the scholars was Alberuni, who was highly talented in many fields, including astronomy, mathematics, physics, languages, and philosophy. Alberuni spent 10 years in India, studying Sanskrit and Indian civilization and religion. He wrote his observations in an account called Tahqiq-i-Hind.
Mahmud’s empire did not last long after his death on April 30, 1030. He did not consolidate his power in the areas he invaded, preferring to capture what wealth there was and return home. His raids were less the beginning of a Muslim invasion of India and more a continuation of the invasions from the northwest that India had seen for many centuries. A more effective Muslim conquest of India did not come until the late 1100’s, with the invasions of Muhammad of Ghor.
See also Delhi Sultanate.
