Cixi (1835-1908), also spelled Tz’u-hsi, dominated the Chinese court from 1861 to 1908 and worked to prevent the westernization of China. She came to power as an empress dowager (widow of an emperor), and she kept tight control over the declining Qing imperial dynasty, which had ruled China since 1644.
Cixi was born on Nov. 29, 1835. She became a concubine (wife of lower rank) to the Xianfeng (Hsien-Feng) emperor, who reigned from 1851 to 1861. In 1856, she bore the emperor a son, Zaichun (Tsai-ch’un), who reigned as the Tongzhi (T’ung-chih) emperor from 1862 to 1875. In the summer of 1861, Xianfeng died. Before his death, he appointed eight regents (temporary rulers) to guide his young Tongzhi emperor. In the autumn of 1861, Cixi issued an order accusing the eight regents of treason and had them arrested. After that time, Cixi dominated the court together with her coregent, Empress Dowager Cian (Tz’u-an), and Prince Gong (Kung), a younger brother of Xianfeng. They brought stability to China by putting down the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) in southern China and the Nian (Nien) Rebellion (1851-1868) farther north. They also opened schools, set up a modern customs service, established the first Chinese foreign service office, and tried to end corruption in the Chinese government. Prince Gong supported such changes, but Cixi was opposed to the modernization programs.
In 1873, Tongzhi was officially declared old enough to rule, and the regency technically ended. But Cixi and the other members of the regency government continued to run the country. In 1875, Tongzhi suddenly died, and Cixi broke the rules of dynastic succession by adopting her 3-year-old nephew Zaitian (Tsai-t’ien) and installing him as the Guangxu (Kuang-hsu) Emperor with the help of a general loyal to her. In 1881, coregent and empress dowager Cian died, making Cixi the sole empress dowager. By 1884, Prince Gong was removed from power, leaving Cixi in sole control. The reforms, many of which Cixi had already undermined, were halted.
In 1889, Guangxu officially came of age. Cixi retired from government, but she remained influential. After China was defeated by Japan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), a group of reformers convinced Guangxu to pass a set of radical laws to modernize the government and end corruption. This reform movement, which lasted approximately 100 days, is known as the Hundred Days’ Reform. In 1898, helped by a group of conservative officials and backed by the army, Cixi staged a military coup and ousted Guangxu, placing him under arrest.
In 1899, Cixi gave her support to the Boxer Rebellion, which reached its peak in 1900 (see Boxer Rebellion). In 1900, foreign troops captured Beijing, and Cixi fled the city. The foreign powers brought an end to the rebellion, and China was forced to accept humiliating peace terms. Returning to Beijing in 1902, Cixi put into effect many of the reforms that she had reversed in 1898. Many historians believe that in 1908, near death, Cixi arranged the assassination of Guangxu. She died on Nov. 15, 1908, a day after his death.
