Writing skills

Writing skills. Learning to be an effective writer is an important part of education. Schoolwork involves a steady stream of writing assignments, and many jobs require the writing of effective letters, memos, and reports. Writing also plays a role in personal life, when people fill in forms or write e-mails or letters to friends and relatives.

Good writing gets its message across so clearly that the reader knows exactly what the writer meant to say. It also holds the reader’s attention so completely that the entire message—not just a fragment of it—is received.

For most people, writing well is not an easy task. People who have no trouble expressing themselves out loud may freeze when they pick up a pencil. Like any other skill—for example, shooting a basketball or playing the piano—writing requires practice. The more you do it, the better you become.

This article contains information designed to help students improve writing skills in general. It also provides specific guidelines for preparing school assignments or projects, and research papers.

Writing tips

Practice helps.

The more you write for fun, the more you realize that writing need not be a chore. Every time you write, you practice a skill and get better at it. Practice is good because it gets you into the habit of using written words to express yourself. Your practice writing does not have to be perfect.

You can get into the writing habit in many ways. Keep a journal or diary to record your experiences, thoughts, and feelings. Write letters or e-mails to friends, relatives, or a pen pal. Try writing a fan letter to your favorite author, TV personality, or rock star. And remember to send post cards when you travel. Send for brochures, pamphlets, and free samples that you see advertised in newspapers or magazines. You might also consider writing your own invitations and greeting cards instead of buying commercially produced ones.

Preliminary steps for success.

Some of your school writing assignments, such as themes, essays, and stories, are based on your own opinions, ideas, or imagination. Other writing assignments, such as book reports and research papers, are based on facts gained from reading and research. Whatever the assignment may be, your work will proceed more smoothly if you follow these suggestions before you begin putting words on paper:

1. Be sure you understand the specifics of the assignment, such as its length and whether the topic is your choice or assigned.
2. Plan ahead and organize your time to help assure that you have enough time to do a good job.
3. If the topic is your choice, select one that interests you, one that you already know something about, or one that you are eager to learn more about. Limit your topic so that you can cover it adequately in the assigned length and the available time.
4. Jot down ideas whenever and wherever they occur to you. Simply talking about your assignment with friends can trigger ideas that you might be able to use in your paper.
5. Develop an outline to organize your thoughts and to guide your writing so you do not forget a point you intended to include. A simple list of the main ideas may be adequate for a short assignment. Major assignments may require a more formal outline.

The three-part plan.

Many writing projects can be organized into three parts: (1) the introduction, (2) the body, and (3) the conclusion. In the introduction, you briefly introduce your topic, giving the reader a preview of what is to come. The body of the paper—the longest part by far—provides the facts, examples, and details that support the main idea expressed in the introduction. The conclusion summarizes and restates the main idea.

The three parts of your paper should work together to make an effective whole. Strive for an attention-getting introduction—one that will arouse interest and encourage your reader to read on. In the body, make sure each point relates to the subject you are discussing. Do not stray into unrelated material or get caught up in trivial details that do not support your main idea. Your conclusion is your last chance to impress the reader. Do not end on a weak note. Try to make your conclusion as strong and effective as you can.

As you get ready to start writing, think of the three parts of your paper in terms of this simple formula.

1. Tell the reader what you are going to say.
2. Say it.
3. Tell the reader what you said.

Writing the first draft.

When the time comes for you to write a first draft, do not sit with pencil poised waiting for the perfect sentence to come to mind. It is better to plunge right in, without worrying about making mistakes in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. At this stage, you simply need to put down the information and ideas you have gathered. Do not feel you have to use complete sentences. You can go back later to change and improve your work. And do not feel you have to begin with the introduction, especially if you are having difficulty with it. In many cases, you will think of an effective introduction after you have written the body of your paper.

Always write or type your first draft on one side of the paper only, with wide margins to allow plenty of room for revisions. If you write the draft, use every other line of the paper. If you type, set your computer, word processor, or typewriter for double- or triple-spacing.

Revising your work.

Think of writing as a building process, with words, sentences, and paragraphs as building blocks. Your goal is to choose the best words, to put them together into clear, grammatical sentences, to form the sentences into logical, coherent paragraphs, and to link the paragraphs into a well-organized paper.

Do not expect to reach your goal the first time around. In most cases, writing involves a lot of rewriting—turning out as many drafts as necessary to produce the best results.

After you have completed your first draft, the best thing to do is forget about your paper for a while. Leave it alone for an hour, a day, or several days if time permits. Then look at it again with a fresh, critical eye.

Begin your revision by reading your work carefully. You might be so impressed or satisfied with your first effort that you think it can’t be improved. But chances are it can be. Editing your own work is one of the hardest and most important tasks in turning out a well-written paper. Reading your work aloud will help you catch parts that need revision. Parts that sound unnatural or do not make sense require reworking. Also look for weak spots in content, organization, and writing style, as well as for errors in grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. Keep a dictionary, thesaurus, and grammar handbook nearby—and be sure to use them. If you are working on a computer or word processor, use such built-in aids as the dictionary or spell checker.

Use a colored pencil and make your corrections right on the paper. If you add one or more sentences, write them in the margin and use an arrow to show where the additions should go. If you want to take out material, do not erase it or black it out completely. Instead, draw a neat line through the material or draw a circle around it. That way, if you later decide to restore the material or move it somewhere else, it will still be readable. If you are using a computer or word processor, save the revised file under a name different from the original.

Judging the content.

To judge the content of your paper, keep in mind your reader and your purpose. Ask yourself these questions: Is the introduction as effective as I can make it? Will it arouse the reader’s interest? Does the body of the paper include all the points I wanted to cover? Will the reader understand what I am trying to say? Are there enough examples or details to support my main idea? Are there gaps that need to be filled? Are there parts that do not really fit and so should be eliminated? Does my conclusion leave a strong impression?

Checking the organization.

Be sure each paragraph has a topic sentence. A topic sentence expresses the central idea of the paragraph. All other sentences in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence. If you have a sentence that does not seem to fit in the paragraph, move it to another paragraph or eliminate it. Do not make it a paragraph by itself. Every paragraph should consist of at least two sentences. Make sure your paragraphs flow smoothly from one to the next in logical order.

Style pointers.

Style—the way you express yourself—can make a big difference in the effectiveness of your writing. A paper that has all the necessary information but is boring to read may leave the reader disappointed and unimpressed. To make your writing as interesting and effective as it can be, keep in mind these points:

1. Use specific, vivid words, including action verbs. If you are writing a report on the Pueblo Indians, for example, tell how the Indians dug irrigation ditches, wove cloth, and carved dolls, not how they made ditches, cloth, and dolls.
2. Vary your sentence structure. Do not write a paper that consists entirely of short, simple sentences. Avoid beginning too many sentences with the same word.
3. Use interesting comparisons to bring statistics to life. For example, a figure for the population of India is more interesting if you add the fact that more people live in India than in all the countries of North and South America combined.
4. Avoid wordiness, unnecessary “big words,” and overused expressions. Do not use excess words that only take up space. For example, write today or now rather than at the present time, and if rather than in the event that. Do not use words that you yourself do not understand or that are intended merely to impress your reader. For example, write end rather than termination, and best rather than optimum. Replace overused expressions, called cliches, with fresher expressions. Hungry as a bear, the last straw, and last but not least are examples of cliches.
5. Avoid overly formal writing. Think of writing as a kind of conversation with yourself or a friend. For certain assignments, your writing style may be more formal than your everyday conversation. However, try to make your writing sound natural.

Common grammatical errors.

Mistakes in grammar can confuse the reader and even change the meaning of what you write. Here are some of the most common grammatical problems you should look for as you revise your work.

1. Run-on sentences consist of two or more independent clauses written together without a proper connection. A comma alone cannot be used to link such clauses. Example: It stopped raining, we played the rest of the game. There are several ways to correct the error. Make two separate sentences: It stopped raining. We played the rest of the game. Use a semicolon to link the independent clauses: It stopped raining; we played the rest of the game. Use a conjunction, such as and or but, to link the clauses: It stopped raining, and we played the rest of the game. Make one of the clauses a phrase or dependent clause: After it stopped raining, we played the rest of the game.
2. Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences. Phrases and dependent clauses cannot stand alone as sentences. To correct a fragment, you can join it to a sentence or add words to make it a sentence. Fragment: known for their skill as hunters. Correction: Known for their skill as hunters, lions have little trouble finding food. or Lions are known for their skill as hunters.
3. Subject-verb agreement. A subject and verb must agree in number and person. Number: The star appears at dusk. [singular] The stars appear at dusk. [plural] Person: I am careful. [First person singular] You are careful. [Second person singular] He, she, it is careful. [Third person singular] We are careful. [First person plural] You are careful. [Second person plural] They are careful. [Third person plural]
4. Pronoun agreement. As shown above, a pronoun used as a subject must agree with its verb. A pronoun must also agree with its antecedent—that is, the particular noun to which it refers. Bill rode his bike to school. The women announced their decision.
5. Unclear pronoun references. Pronouns can cause confusion if their antecedents are not clear. Confusing: When Karen told Ann the story, she looked surprised. Clear: When Karen told Ann the story, Ann looked surprised. or Ann looked surprised when Karen told her the story.
6. Dangling modifier is an element in a sentence that seems to modify a word that it does not logically modify. Dangling: Running at record-breaking speed, the race was the highlight of the day. Correct: Running at record-breaking speed, Kelly made the race the highlight of the day.
7. Misplaced modifier is a phrase or clause not close enough to the word it modifies. As a result, it may seem to modify another word. Misplaced: Jack ran to his mother waving the letter. Correct: Waving the letter, Jack ran to his mother.
8. Shifts in verb tense. Generally, you should use one verb tense throughout your paper. If your paper describes past events, you should use the past tense. For many other papers, you will use the present tense. Be consistent in whichever tense you choose. After you have completed all your revisions, your work should be the best it can be. You are then ready to produce the final copy. The next sections provide specific suggestions on how to prepare a short report, book report, and research paper as well as general guidelines for producing the final copy.

Preparing a short report

During a school year, you will probably be asked to write short reports on various subjects. The typical short report runs from 300 to 500 words and involves gathering information from one or more sources. This research provides you with “raw material”—the information you need for your report. As the writer, your job is to produce a finished product—a report that presents the research information in your own words in a clear, interesting manner.

Before you write.

The section “Writing tips” included a list of preliminary steps to follow before you begin a writing task. Here are some additional suggestions that apply specifically to short reports.

Understanding the assignment.

Be sure you know how long the report should be. Your teacher may give you a specific figure, such as 400 words, or a range, such as 300 to 500 words. It probably will not matter if you go a bit over or under the number of words assigned, but stay close to the target.

You need to know if your teacher expects a summary report or a critical report. In a summary report, you present the information you have found without expressing any opinions or judgments. For example, a paper describing the founding of the United Nations could be presented as a summary report. In a critical report, on the other hand, you are expected to present your own reactions to the information you have found. You need to evaluate the information, take a stand, and justify your stand with supporting points. In a critical report on the United Nations, you might take a position for or against continued United States membership in the organization.

If your teacher lets you choose between a summary report and a critical report, wait and see how you react to the research material before you decide. If you find yourself strongly agreeing or disagreeing with what you read, a critical report might be in order. On the other hand, if the information seems straightforward and noncontroversial, a summary report would be appropriate.

Choosing a topic.

A short report demands a narrow topic. You simply will not have enough space to cover a lot of territory. For example, if you tried to write a paper on “The circulatory system,” “Life in colonial America,” or “The U.S. space program,” you would find yourself swamped with information. Topics that could be more easily handled in a short report might be “How white blood cells fight disease,” “Tools used by colonial farmers,” or “Life aboard the space station.”

One way to get ideas on how to limit your topic is to check an encyclopedia. Using the index or the search feature, look for the general subject heading you are interested in, such as Circulatory system. The article titles listed under the heading will provide you with a starting point for narrowing your topic. Then check the individual articles to see what they cover and how they are organized. A subheading in one of the articles might give you just the idea you need for a suitable topic. Other sources of ideas include the table of contents of a book covering your topic or the articles listed under your topic in a periodical index.

Background reading

will help you become familiar with your topic. Encyclopedia articles on your topic are good sources for background reading. As you read, you can decide what kinds of information you would like to include in your report and what can be left out. It is a good idea to jot down a list of points to serve as a sort of preliminary outline and a guide to your research. Your list might take the form of a series of questions you hope to answer in your report. If your topic is “Life aboard the space station,” for example, your questions might include: What does the inside of the station look like? How big are the crew’s quarters? How do the astronauts eat? How do they spend most of their time?

Researching the topic

involves finding sources, reading them, and taking notes on what you have read. The encyclopedia articles you used for your background reading may have included additional resources—lists of books or websites that provide additional information about your subject. You can also look through the catalog at your school or public library and check such basic reference works as Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature and The World Almanac and Book of Facts.

After you have found good source material, you need to read it carefully and take accurate notes. For a short report that requires only a few sources, you may find it easiest to take notes on lined paper or a notepad. Many people prefer using index cards, however, because they can easily be arranged and organized. If you are using electronic reference materials, you can print out the information you need or save it on a disk.

Preparing an outline

is the last step you need to do before writing your report. Prepare an outline even if your teacher does not ask for one. It will help you organize your notes and make writing your first draft easier.

Begin preparing the outline by gathering all your notes and reviewing them. Then decide how the information can be organized into major topics and subtopics. Assign a heading to each topic and subtopic. Next, arrange the headings in logical order. For a short report, your outline can be simple, with only a few main headings and subheadings. Here is an example of an outline for the report on “Life aboard the space station”:

This kind of outline is a topic outline. It uses words or phrases for headings. A sentence outline uses complete sentences for headings. You should be consistent in using one form or the other. Do not mix phrases and sentences in the same outline. For more detailed information about outline format, see the sections “The preliminary outline” and “The final outline.”

Writing a short report.

After you have completed your outline, stop and think about the information you have gathered. What is the main idea you have discovered? Summarize your main idea and make it your thesis sentence. Put the thesis sentence at or near the beginning of your paper. It should tell the reader what your paper is about and should guide you as you write. All the points you make in your report should relate in some way to the thesis sentence. Here is an example of a thesis sentence for the report on “Life aboard the space station”:

1. A look inside a space station shows how people can adapt to living under unusual circumstances.

When you are ready to write your first draft, keep your notes and outline nearby. Focus on your thesis sentence and begin. Your notes should provide you with the specific details and examples you will need to support your thesis statement. Follow the suggestions given in the section “Writing tips” as you write and revise your work.

Preparing the final copy.

After you have made your last revision, you are ready to prepare a clean, fresh copy of your report. If your teacher has given you instructions on how to submit the report, follow them exactly. Otherwise, you can use these guidelines.

If you can, type your report on a computer, a word processor, or a typewriter. Use high-quality paper and check the print. Double-space your report. Make your margins 2¹/₂ to 4 centimeters wide on the left and 2¹/₂ centimeters on the right, top and bottom.

If you cannot type, write your report in ink on white, lined paper, using one side only. Write as neatly as possible.

Before you submit your paper, reread it carefully to make sure you have copied everything correctly from your final version. Check, too, for last-minute mistakes in spelling or punctuation and for typing errors. Correct the errors as neatly as you can.

Preparing a book report

As a student, you will probably write many short papers about books. A written report about a book may be only a brief summary, or it may be a lengthy analysis.

Before you write.

See the section “Writing tips” for a list of preliminary steps that apply to various writing assignments. In addition, here are some specific suggestions to help you prepare for writing a good paper about a book.

Understanding the assignment.

It is important that you understand exactly what you are expected to cover in a book report. Does your teacher simply want a summary of the book? If the book is a novel, for example, does your teacher want only a brief retelling of the story? Or are you expected to write a critique, in which you state your reactions and give your opinions about the book? May you select both the book and the topic for your report? Or has your teacher specified the book and the topic? In the case of an assigned novel, for instance, have you been asked to analyze the main character or discuss the theme? In the case of an assigned biography, are you to explain how the subject influenced the times in which he or she lived? Be sure you understand the assignment before you start reading. That way, you will know what factors to pay particular attention to as you read the book.

Choosing a book.

If you are allowed to choose the book for your report, you obviously should pick one that you think you will enjoy reading, whether it is fiction or nonfiction. Also consider how much time you have available. If a book report is due in three weeks, do not assume you will have three weeks to read a book. You will also need several days to write and revise the report. Select a book you can finish well within your time for the assignment.

Consider the reading level of the book as well. Do not pick a book that is too easy to read just so you can finish it quickly. On the other hand, do not choose a book in which the content, vocabulary, or writing style is too difficult. Select a book that seems to be at or slightly above your reading level. The booklists at the end of many World Book articles are divided into categories for younger and older readers. The bibliographies in the article Literature for children also rate books according to various reading levels. If you have trouble selecting an appropriate book, ask your teacher or librarian for suggestions.

Hints for effective reading.

If the book you are to report on has a preface or introduction, be sure to read it. It may contain information that will help you understand the author’s purpose, the period in which the book was written, and other factors that can help you judge the book fairly. You can also gain background information by checking other sources, such as World Book, for a biography of the author or articles on other related subjects.

If the teacher has specified the topic you are to report on, pay particular attention to the parts of the book that pertain to that topic. Take notes as you go along, and record page numbers of passages you want to remember. If the book is your own copy, you may underline or otherwise highlight important parts and make notes in the margins.

Choosing an appropriate topic.

If the topic of your book report is your choice, take time after you have finished the book to think about what you have read. Ask yourself questions to help decide on a topic. What impressed you particularly about the book? In the case of a novel, for example, did the story keep you interested to the very end? Did you sympathize with the characters? In the case of a biography, did you feel you really got to know the subject? Did the author present an unbiased view of the subject? Did the author of your book have a style that you liked—or did not like? Did you learn anything especially interesting about human nature, a historical period, or another country?

You may decide there were more things you did not like about the book than you liked. Whatever your overall impression was, it is best to select one or two aspects of the book as the topic of your book report.

Preparing an outline.

After you have decided what your topic will be, it is helpful to make an outline to guide your writing. The outline may consist of a simple list of points you want to cover. Or it may be a traditional outline, as described in the section “Preparing a short report.”

Writing a book report.

Follow the suggestions in the “Writing tips” section as you write the first draft and revisions. Remember the need for a strong introduction, a supportive body, and an effective conclusion.

In the body of your book report, back up your thesis sentence with direct references to the book. Interweave your personal comments with summaries of specific parts of the book or direct quotations. If you quote directly, be sure to copy accurately, use quotation marks, and include the page number in parentheses after the quotation. If you quote from a source other than the book you are reporting on, you will need to use a citation. See the section “Preparing citations” for information on how to prepare citations.

When you are ready to prepare your final copy, follow your teacher’s instructions precisely. If you have no instructions, use the guidelines in the section “The final copy.” Double-check quoted material to ensure you have copied it exactly.

Preparing a research paper

“Research paper.” The very words make some students quake with fear. Preparing a research paper is a big job. But if you go about it the right way, it is a manageable task. It helps to start out with a positive attitude.

Think of your research paper assignment as a chance to learn a lot more about something that interests you. It is also an opportunity to develop skills in information gathering, organization, and writing. These skills will make you better equipped to handle many other school assignments and perhaps job duties later in life.

Like a short report, a research paper, or term paper, is based on research. But a research paper is longer—generally eight or more pages—and it requires checking more sources. It also has more parts, including a title page, an outline, citations, and a list of sources. The following sections give specific guidelines you will need for preparing a research paper.

Before you write.

You may be surprised to learn that writing your research paper is one of the last steps you will do after receiving the assignment. There are many tasks that need to be completed before you can begin writing.

Making a schedule.

Planning ahead is a good idea for any writing assignment. For a research paper, it is a must. You might have several weeks, or even months, to prepare a research paper. Whatever you do, do not let yourself be lulled into thinking you can relax until a week or two before the deadline. As soon as you get your research paper assignment, make a schedule.

Consider other assignments and commitments you have and plan to spend a certain number of hours a day—perhaps two or three—working on your research paper. Then mark the due date for the paper on your calendar. Count backward to plan blocks of time for finishing the final draft, revising the first draft, writing the first draft, organizing your note cards, and preparing a final outline.

Follow these guidelines to plan a realistic schedule:

1. Give yourself at least an hour per page to write the first draft.
2. Plan to spend at least two hours per page revising the first draft. (Do not include the final outline and the list of sources in this estimate.)
3. Allow about an hour per page to type the final copy, including all text pages, the final outline, and the list of sources. That hour or so includes time for proofreading, making corrections, and placing citations correctly.
4. Allow one day to organize your notes and one day to prepare your final outline.

The time left will be used to choose your topic, read, gather information, and take notes.

Choosing a topic.

In most cases, your instructor will allow you to choose the topic for your research paper. One way to begin the selection process is to choose a broad topic and then narrow it down. Look at the study aids at the end of the article in World Book.

Remember that you will be spending much time on your research paper, so be sure you choose a topic you are really interested in. Give your topic choice careful thought. Even if you do not particularly like the subject, you can probably find a specific topic within the subject area that appeals to you. For example, perhaps you do not care much for United States history, but you love music. A U.S. history research paper on songs of the American Civil War could be more fun to prepare than you thought possible.

Be sure to narrow the topic of your research paper to manageable size. Do not be fooled into thinking that you will have plenty of time and space to cover a broad topic. It is far better to cover a narrow topic in depth than to skim over a broad topic. See the section “Preparing a short report” for how to narrow your topic.

Another important point to consider in selecting a research paper topic is the availability of research materials. Go to the library or media center and check the library catalog and Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature to be sure enough books or articles have been written on your topic. If no such books or articles are available, your topic may be too recent or too specialized.

Background reading.

After you have chosen your research paper topic, do some background reading. A good, up-to-date encyclopedia like World Book is an excellent place to begin. An encyclopedia will not give you all the information you need, but it will provide an overview of the topic. Search for your topic and read the various articles that deal with it. Most likely, your background reading will turn up aspects of your topic you had not thought of. You may find yourself reshaping your topic according to something that strikes your interest. As you read, jot down ideas that occur to you about what you would like to cover in your paper. Note charts, tables, photographs, maps, and bibliographies that could be helpful.

The preliminary outline.

With your background reading behind you, you are ready to prepare a preliminary outline for your research paper. The outline will help you organize your thoughts and guide your research.

Begin your preliminary outline by figuring out what the main idea, or purpose, of your research paper is. This purpose is called the thesis. Try to state it in one sentence. As you are determining your thesis, also decide what kind of approach your paper will take. If your subject inspires strong opinions, you may want to take a pro or con approach, in which you take a stand for or against a certain proposition. Some papers use a descriptive approach or an explanatory approach. Other papers attempt to prove or disprove a theory or idea. You may choose to compare or contrast two or more things or show the cause and effect of something. A chronological approach, which traces the order in which events occurred, suits some topics. Other topics lend themselves to an analytical approach, in which a topic is thoroughly examined.

After you have decided on your thesis and approach, ask yourself what points you want to cover to support your thesis. Write down each point as the basis of your preliminary outline. At this stage, you need not be too concerned about the order or completeness of your outline. Remember it is a preliminary outline; so keep it simple. You are likely to change it as you explore your topic in greater depth. The important thing is that you give yourself a clear direction before you begin to conduct your research.

Preparing a list of sources.

The next step you need to perform is preparing a list of sources to consult in your research. To begin with, go back to the encyclopedia articles you read earlier to see if they include lists of sources to check for additional information. Many World Book articles, for example, include bibliographies—lists of books for further reading.

In addition, many of the sources you consult for your paper will include additional source lists or bibliographies. You will find additional sources when you check the catalog, magazine and newspaper indexes, and electronic sources in your library.

For each source you locate—book, article, pamphlet, record, tape, website, and so on—make a note. If you are using a computer, you can add each source you find to one list. If you are writing your source list, use one index card for each source. These cards will be easy to organize and alphabetize when you later prepare your final list of sources. If a source does not have usable information, make a note on your list, or draw a line through its card. But keep the note so that you will have a record of every source you checked in doing your research.

Doing research.

The quality of your research paper depends greatly on the information in it. It is important to find reliable, interesting information and record it in accurate notes.

You may need to examine various kinds of sources before you find the best possible ones. Books and articles are traditional sources. But you may discover that your best information comes from a survey or interview, the Internet, or a museum or historical society in your community. Valuable information may turn up in places you least expect to find it. The notes on a record jacket, for example, could provide interesting details for a report on the origins of rock music. View your research as an investigation. You are out to track down leads and find the facts you will need to write the best paper you can.

See Research skills for detailed suggestions on how to use the library or media center and on how to get information from various sources. The guide also gives specific instructions on taking notes.

The final outline.

When you feel you have all the information you need, it is time to review and organize your notes. Go back and read them carefully. Then look at your thesis statement. Does it still make sense? Should it be changed somewhat on the basis of what you learned from your research? Remember, the thesis statement should summarize the purpose of your paper. Be sure you have it right before you go any further.

Next, arrange your information according to your preliminary outline. Does the outline still work? Is your approach still appropriate? Should you change or rearrange any of the main headings? Are there information gaps that need additional research? Can any of your notes be set aside because they do not further the purpose of your paper?

All these questions will help you get ready to prepare your final outline. The final outline will direct your writing. It should be an accurate guide to what you plan to include in your paper.

After you have arranged your information in logical order, group it into large, obvious divisions. These divisions will be your main topics. Three to five main topics are generally enough for a research paper. Next, see how your main topics can be subdivided. These subtopics must relate to the main topic. You must have at least two subtopics under a main topic—or none at all.

The final outline may be either a topic outline or a sentence outline, but not a combination of them. In either outline form, all the headings must be expressed in parallel phrasing. All topics of equal importance must be equally indented. Topics and subtopics are identified by Roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals, and lower-case letters, in that order, followed by periods. Here is an example of a final outline for a research paper, preceded by the thesis sentence:

Writing your research paper.

At this stage, most of the work is behind you. If you have done a good job on all the preceding steps, the writing should go smoothly.

Writing the first draft.

With your final outline before you and your notes arranged in proper order, you are ready to begin writing your first draft. Write or type the draft on one side of the paper only. Use double- or triple-spacing and wide margins to make later revisions easier.

As you write your first draft, concentrate on putting your ideas down in a clear and orderly fashion, with smooth transitions from one point to the next. Your thesis sentence should appear in the introduction and guide you as you write. The details you include in the body of your report should relate to the thesis sentence. Your conclusion should restate your thesis in an effective way.

If you use a quotation, copy it exactly and enclose it in quotation marks. A quotation that is more than five lines long should be indented and single-spaced, with no quotation marks. If you omit part of a quotation, use an ellipsis (…) in place of the part left out. If you need to add words of your own to make the meaning of the quotation clear, enclose those words in brackets ([ ]).

Preparing citations.

Quotations and certain other material in your research paper require citations. The main purpose for citations in a research paper is to document sources—that is, to give credit to the author whose words or ideas you are using. Even if you restate someone else’s idea or opinion in your own words, you must credit that person. Otherwise you may be guilty of plagiarism—stealing someone else’s words or ideas and passing them off as your own. You should also use citations for facts or figures that a reader might have cause to question.

There are several standard citation styles that vary slightly from one another. The MLA style, published by the Modern Language Association, is the standard style for works in the arts and the humanities. It is also the most widely used style for writers of research papers.

In MLA style, you acknowledge your sources by inserting brief parenthetical citations within the text of the paper. The citations appear in more detailed form in an alphabetical list of sources—often called a works-cited list—that appears at the end of the paper.

The parenthetical citation in the following sentence is an example of MLA citation style:

1. More than 80 percent of South Korea’s population attends college (Connor 339).

The citation tells readers that the information in the sentence came from a book edited by someone named Connor and appears on page 339 in the book. Readers can get more detailed information from the list of works cited at the end of the paper:

1. Connor, Mary E., ed. The Koreas: Asia in Focus. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009.

The works-cited list contains all the sources—books, articles, pamphlets, websites, and so on—that you used to prepare your research paper. Do not include sources that you consulted but did not use. The works-cited list tells the reader both where you found your information and where further information on the topic can be obtained.

Common titles for the list of sources include Works Cited, Bibliography, Literature Cited, and Sources Cited. However, the word bibliography, strictly speaking, refers only to print sources, such as books and articles. MLA style favors the broader title Works Cited because many research papers draw on nonprint sources, such as films, recordings, and websites. Be sure to follow your teacher’s instructions when choosing a title and style for your list of sources.

The following examples show the MLA style for citing websites, books, magazines, television programs, and other types of sources in a list of works cited.

How to cite a page or an article from a website (including an online encyclopedia):

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first [if given]. “Article or Web page title.” [enclosed in double quotation marks] Website title. [in italics] Publisher’s name [if not available, use n.p.], date of publication. [day, month, and year; if no date is available, use n.d.] Publication medium. Access date.
3. Example:
4. Maney, Patrick J. “Roosevelt, Eleanor.” World Book Student. World Book, 2011. Web. 11 Jan. 2011.

How to cite an article from a DVD encyclopedia:

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first [if given]. “Article title.” [enclosed in double quotation marks] Publication title. [in italics] Name of editor preceded by Ed. [if given]. Edition [if stated]. City of publication: Publisher’s name, year of publication. Medium of publication.
3. Example:
4. Garrison, David L. “Marine biology.” World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia 2011 Edition . Chicago: World Book, 2011. DVD.

How to cite an article from a print encyclopedia:

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first [if given]. “Article title.” [enclosed in double quotation marks] Publication title. [in italics] Edition [if stated]. Year of publication [do not include if stated in edition information]. Publication medium.
3. Example:
4. Beller, Steven. “Vienna.” The World Book Encyclopedia. 2011 ed. Print.

How to cite a book with one author:

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first. Full book title. [in italics] Edition [if stated]. Number of volumes [if a multivolume work]. City of publication: Publisher’s name, year of publication. Publication medium.
3. Example:
4. Stiles, T. J.The First Tycoon: The Epic Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt. New York City: Knopf, 2009. Print.

How to cite a book with two or more authors:

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first, next listed author’s name(s) in normal form. Full book title. [in italics] Edition [if stated]. Number of volumes [if a multivolume work]. City of publication: Publisher’s name, year of publication. Publication medium.
3. Example:
4. Gates, Henry L., Jr., and Evelyn B. Higginbotham, eds. African American National Biography. 8 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

How to cite an article from a magazine published every week or every two weeks:

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first. “Article title.” [enclosed in double quotation marks] Publication title [in italics] date of publication: page numbers. Publication medium.
3. Example:
4. Zakaria, Fareed. “A New Afghanistan Strategy.” Newsweek 9 Feb. 2009: 36-37. Print.

How to cite an article from a magazine published every month or every two months:

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first. “Article title.” [enclosed in double quotation marks] Publication title [in italics] date of publication: page numbers. Publication medium.
3. Example:
4. Gropnik, Alison. “How Babies Think.” Scientific American July 2010: 76-81. Print.

How to cite a radio or television program:

1. Format:
2. ”Episode or segment title.” [enclosed in double quotation marks] Program title. [in italics] Name of the network. Call letters, city of local station [if any], broadcast date. Medium of reception.
3. Example:
4. “The Big Gamble.”60 Minutes. CBS. WBBM, Chicago, 9 Jan. 2011. Television.

How to cite an article from a newspaper:

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first. “Article title.” [enclosed in double quotation marks] Publication title [in italics] complete date of publication, edition [if given], section letter or number [if applicable]: page numbers. Publication medium.
3. Example:
4. Petrie, Kari. “Let There Be Light—and Data Streaming.”USA Today 10 Jan. 2011, sec. B: 5. Print.

How to cite a pamphlet:

1. Format:
2. Author’s name, last name first. Pamphlet title. [in italics]. City of publication: Publisher’s name, year of publication. Publication medium.
3. Example:
4. Modern Language Association. Language Study in the Age of Globalization: The College-Level Experience. New York: MLA, n.d. Print.

How to cite a program on a videocassette or videodisc:

1. Format:
2. Program title. [in italics] Director [if given]. Producer. Original release date [if relevant]. Medium. Distributor, year of release.
3. Example:
4. The Incredible Human Body. Dir. Alexander Grasshoff. National Geographic Video. Videocassette. National Geographic Society, 2002.

How to cite a government publication:

1. Format:
2. Government name. Issuing agency name. Publication title. [in italics] City of publication: Publisher, year of publication.
3. Example:
4. United States. Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011. Alexandria, VA: National Technical Information Service, 2010.

How to cite a personal interview:

1. Format:
2. Interviewed person’s name, last name first. Kind of interview. Date of interview.
3. Example:
4. Meyers, Davin. Personal interview. 4 May 2009.

For further guidance on MLA style, refer to the most current edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.

Some other citation styles use endnotes or footnotes rather than parenthetical citations. Endnotes appear at the end of the paper, and footnotes appear at the bottom of each page that has one or more citations. Be sure to use the style that your teacher prefers.

Preparing an appendix.

You may decide to include tables, charts, graphs, diagrams, lists, or other material with your research paper. If so, place the material at the end of the paper and label each item Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on. Each item should also be given a title. In the appropriate place in your text, you can refer to the material with a cross-reference to the specific appendix. You can write, for example, “For a graph showing the nation’s population growth, see Appendix A.”

Revising your first draft.

If time permits, set aside the first draft of your research paper for at least a day before you begin to revise it. Then cast a critical eye on it and judge it for content, organization, and style, as well as for such mechanical details as grammar, spelling, and punctuation. See the section “Revising your work” for detailed guidelines on revising your work.

Revising a research paper involves a few more steps than are needed for most other written work. First, see that your parenthetical citations have the required information and are in the proper style. Second, check any direct quotations to be sure they are worded accurately. Finally, check the list of sources (Works Cited) to see that it is alphabetized properly and that each entry has all the required information with correct punctuation.

The final copy.

If your teacher has given you a style sheet, be sure to follow it precisely as you prepare your final copy. If there is no style sheet, follow these guidelines:

1. Type or print out your report on high-quality white paper, using one side only. (If you must prepare a handwritten report, write in ink on standard ruled paper.)
2. Leave a margin of 1 to 1 1/2 inches (2¹/₂ to 4 centimeters) on the left and 1 inch (2¹/₂ centimeters) on the right, the top, and the bottom of the paper. However, start the outline page 2 inches (5 centimeters) from the top.
3. Double-space the text.
4. Indent paragraphs five spaces.
5. Single-space the outline, but double-space between the main headings.
6. Begin each item on the list of sources at the left margin and indent the second and following lines five spaces. Single-space within each entry, but double-space between entries.
7. Single-space quotations that are indented rather than run-in with the text.
8. Number all pages except the title page. Use lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, …) for the outline pages and Arabic numerals for all other pages. Center the number at the bottom of the first page of the outline, the text, and the list of sources. Center the number at the top of all other pages.
9. Prepare a title page, which contains the title, your name, and the date. You may also include the name of the teacher and class.

After you have finished typing or writing all the parts of your paper, assemble them in this order:

1. The title page.
2. The final outline, including the title of the paper and the thesis sentence.
3. The text of the paper, with the title of the paper repeated in all capital letters on the first page.
4. The list of sources.
5. The appendix, if included.

Fasten your paper in the upper left-hand corner, or put it in a folder or binder. You may want to make an extra copy. Then congratulate yourself. You are finished, and the paper is ready to turn in.