Iraq War (2003-2011) began when the United States and its allies launched an invasion of Iraq in March 2003. The U.S.-led forces controlled most of Iraq by mid-April, after the fall of the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The troops involved in the invasion came mainly from the United States, though forces from the United Kingdom and a few other countries also participated.
United States President George W. Bush declared an end to major combat operations in Iraq on May 1, 2003. Afterward, U.S., Iraqi, and allied forces from many countries tried to maintain security, restore stability, and rebuild the country. However, Iraqi and foreign militants carried out many attacks against these military and security forces, as well as against civilian targets. Most of the militants opposed the presence of U.S. and allied foreign forces in Iraq. The Iraq War remained a major challenge in the presidency of Barack Obama, who took office in 2009.
The U.S. government referred to the war as Operation Iraqi Freedom until the end of combat operations on Aug. 31, 2010. From Sept. 1, 2010, until the official end of the war on Dec. 15, 2011, the war was known as Operation New Dawn.
Background to the war
A coalition of 39 nations, organized mainly by the United States and the United Nations (UN), defeated Iraq in the Persian Gulf War of 1991. That war had erupted after Hussein’s forces invaded and occupied Kuwait, Iraq’s neighbor to the south, in 1990. After the invasion, the United Nations Security Council had authorized the coalition to expel Iraq from Kuwait.
Illegal weapons.
As part of the cease-fire agreement that ended the Persian Gulf War of 1991, Iraq agreed to destroy all of its weapons of mass destruction—that is, biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons—and any facilities it had for producing such weapons. However, in the years following the war, Iraq did not fully comply with the terms of the agreement. On a number of occasions, it failed to cooperate with UN teams sent to inspect suspected weapons sites. Starting in 1998, the Iraqi government refused to allow UN weapons inspectors into the country.
In 2001 and 2002, President Bush repeatedly claimed that Hussein and his government were a threat to the security of the United States and other countries. The Bush administration accused Hussein of illegally developing and possessing weapons of mass destruction. It also argued that links existed between Hussein’s government and terrorist organizations, including al-Qa`ida, the group responsible for the terrorist attacks in the United States on Sept. 11, 2001 (see Qa`ida, Al-; September 11 terrorist attacks). However, many experts doubted that there was any working relationship between Iraq and al-Qa`ida.
Debate within the UN.
Bush said that if the UN failed to force Iraq to disarm, the United States might launch a military attack against the country. In response, Iraq began negotiating conditions for a return of the UN weapons inspectors. In November 2002, the UN Security Council passed a resolution demanding the resumption of weapons inspections and threatening serious consequences if Iraq failed to follow UN terms on disarmament. Iraq allowed weapons inspectors to return to the country later that month. However, in the months that followed, the United States, the United Kingdom, and other countries charged that Hussein was not cooperating with the inspectors. The United States maintained its threat of possible military action against Iraq.
Members of the UN Security Council disagreed on whether to take military action. The United States was the main supporter of such action. The United Kingdom and Spain also favored the use of force. However, France, Germany, Russia, China, and some other countries argued for more time to seek a diplomatic solution. The United States decided to move toward war despite the disagreement among the Security Council members.
Military action
On March 17, 2003 (U.S. time), Bush stated that if Hussein and his sons did not leave Iraq within 48 hours, the United States would begin military action. Hussein did not leave, and a U.S.-led coalition launched an attack on Iraq on March 20 (March 19 in the United States). The removal of Hussein from power was a central goal of the operation. The coalition consisted mostly of U.S. troops, with British, Australian, Polish, and Danish forces also participating.
The coalition’s initial attack,
an air strike on March 20, was reportedly aimed at eliminating Iraqi leadership in Baghdad, Iraq’s capital. In the days that followed, the coalition carried out intense bombing aimed at key targets in Baghdad and elsewhere. A large number of coalition ground troops invaded from the south, traveling from Kuwait toward Baghdad. The Turkish government refused to allow coalition troops to enter Iraq from Turkey, blocking the coalition’s plan to launch a major offensive from the north. Instead, coalition troops parachuted into northern Iraq and there joined Iraqi Kurds, an ethnic minority, in fighting Iraqi government troops. Coalition forces in the north also targeted Ansar al-Islam, an Islamic militant group that the U.S. government said was linked to al-Qa`ida.
Battle in Baghdad.
As coalition forces neared Baghdad, they engaged in battle with Iraq’s Republican Guard, the most highly trained branch of Iraq’s military. In early April, coalition forces seized control of the international airport outside Baghdad. Within days, the forces gained control of Hussein’s presidential palaces and other key locations in the city. Meanwhile, coalition air strikes continued to target high-level Iraqi officials and other strategic targets both inside and outside Baghdad. On April 9, coalition forces took control of central Baghdad, and U.S. officials declared that the Hussein government had been removed from power.
Shortly before Baghdad’s fall, British forces had seized control of Basra, the largest city in southern Iraq. By mid-April, coalition forces held all of Iraq’s major cities. On May 1, Bush declared that major combat operations had ended.
After the fall of the Hussein regime,
the coalition countries, led by the United States, established the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) as a temporary government for Iraq. Coalition troops and CPA officials then focused on restoring order and overseeing the creation of a new Iraqi-controlled government. The coalition also began searching Iraq for weapons of mass destruction. On June 28, 2004, the CPA was dissolved, and an interim government made up of Iraqis took its place. On Jan. 30, 2005, an election was held for a transitional National Assembly to replace the interim government. The Assembly oversaw the preparation of a constitution for Iraq. In October, Iraqis approved the Constitution in a nationwide referendum. In December, Iraqis elected a permanent legislature called the Council of Representatives.
Coalition forces captured or killed several key officials of the Hussein regime. In July 2003, Hussein’s sons Uday and Qusay, who had held high-ranking positions in their father’s government, were killed during a firefight with U.S. troops. On Dec. 13, 2003, Saddam Hussein himself was captured by U.S. troops near his hometown of Tikrit. He had been in hiding since the war began in March. In 2006, a special Iraqi court convicted Hussein of ordering the massacre of over 140 Shī`ites in 1982 and sentenced him to death by hanging. Hussein was executed by Iraqi authorities on Dec. 30, 2006. At the time, Hussein was facing additional charges, including genocide and crimes against humanity, for other actions he took while he was president of Iraq.
During most of the period from 2003 to 2009, U.S. troops were in charge of security in northern and western Iraq; British troops were in charge of security in much of southern Iraq; and a Polish-led international force had security duties in an area of central Iraq south of Baghdad. Iraqi troops became increasingly involved in security operations, especially after June 2004.
More than 30 countries sent peacekeeping forces to serve in Iraq. Besides the United States, participating countries included Albania, Armenia, Australia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Estonia, Fiji, Georgia, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Mongolia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, South Korea, Spain, Thailand, Tonga, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom.
Resistance to the coalition.
Many Iraqis celebrated the fall of Hussein’s government. However, many also opposed the presence of U.S. and other foreign forces in Iraq. On numerous occasions, the opposition became violent.
After Bush declared the end of major combat operations in May 2003, numerous guerrilla attacks, bombings, and other violent acts continued in Iraq. Militants from both the Sunni Muslim and Shī`ite Muslim populations in Iraq carried out attacks and called for the withdrawal of foreign soldiers and civilians. Prior to 2006, most of the militants were Sunnis who opposed Iraq’s new government, which was dominated by Shī`ites and backed by the United States. Some of the attackers were believed to be loyal to Hussein.
Muslim militants from other countries were thought to have been involved in many attacks. Some of the militants were believed to have connections to al-Qa`ida. The main group of militants with Qa`ida ties was led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a Jordanian, until his death in June 2006. This group is sometimes called by its original name, Tawhid and Jihad. It has also been called al-Qa`ida in Iraq, al-Qa`ida Organization of Holy War in Iraq, and other names that indicate its Qa`ida connections.
The attacks targeted coalition troops, Iraqi security forces, and Iraqi and foreign civilians. Some of the attacks struck against religious sites, especially Shī`ite ones. Several Iraqis in key leadership positions were assassinated. Bombing targets included police and civil defense stations, government buildings, military facilities, oil pipelines, mosques, and churches. High-profile targets included the Jordanian embassy in Baghdad; the UN headquarters in Baghdad; the Imām Alī Mosque in Najaf, a major holy site for Shī`ites; the headquarters of the Red Cross in Baghdad; Kurdish political party offices in Arbil; and sites in Baghdad and Karbala where Shī`ites gather each year for the religious festival of Ashūra.
Hundreds of Iraqi and foreign civilians were kidnapped in Iraq. Many of the kidnappings were for ransom, but others were for political reasons. For example, some militants kidnapped foreign civilians in an attempt to persuade their home countries to withdraw troops from, or cease business activities in, Iraq. Kidnappers murdered some of the civilians.
In 2004, frequent clashes between Sunni militants and U.S.-led forces began in central Iraq. The city of Fallujah, west of Baghdad, was the site of much of the fighting. The violence killed thousands of people, including soldiers, militants, and civilians. In mid-2004, Sunni militants gained control of some parts of central Iraq, including the cities of Fallujah, Ramadi, and Samarra. In October 2004, U.S. and Iraqi forces regained control of Samarra. In November, after several weeks of U.S. air strikes on Fallujah, U.S. and Iraqi forces began a major ground assault on the city. They seized control of most of Fallujah within a few days. The air and ground attacks destroyed hundreds of buildings and did much damage to the city’s power lines and water and sewer pipes.
Also in 2004, much fighting occurred between U.S.-led forces and militants loyal to the radical Shī`ite cleric Muqtada (also spelled Moqtada) al-Sadr. This fighting took place mainly in Najaf and in a Baghdad community known as Sadr City. Al-Sadr later signed a truce with the Iraqi government and partially disarmed his militia.
On Feb. 22, 2006, militants bombed the al-Askari shrine in Samarra. The shrine, containing the tomb of two important Shī`ite imāms (religious leaders), is one of the holiest sites to Shī`ite Muslims. The bombing sparked an increase of attacks between Sunni and Shī`ite groups. The continuing violence between the two groups engulfed major areas of Baghdad and its surroundings, adding to the difficulties of providing basic security for Iraqis. Numerous other bombings and attacks occurred throughout Iraq, killing thousands of civilians and soldiers.
In 2007, the United States sent 30,000 more troops to help the Iraqi government establish security throughout the country. The number of attacks dropped, but some violence continued. United States combat operations in Iraq formally ended on Aug. 31, 2010. Some U.S. troops remained in Iraq until late 2011 to fight terrorism and perform other duties.
Consequences of the war
Casualties and destruction.
A total of 172 coalition soldiers—139 Americans and 33 Britons—died during what Bush called the major combat phase of the war in March and April 2003. From May 1, 2003, until the war’s official end on Dec. 15, 2011, an additional 4,631 coalition soldiers, mostly Americans, died in Iraq. More than 32,000 coalition soldiers were wounded. There are no official estimates of how many Iraqis died as a result of the war. Most observers believe that tens of thousands of Iraqis, mostly civilians, died. Some observers believe there were several hundred thousand Iraqi deaths. Numerous foreign civilians, including journalists, business people, and aid workers, were also killed.
The war caused extensive damage to Iraq’s utilities, transportation systems, and industries. In addition, looting was a major problem during the early stages of the war, as mobs of Iraqis entered palaces, museums, and other buildings and carried away items from inside.
Disagreements over the war.
World opinion was sharply divided over the war and the occupation of Iraq by coalition forces. Before the war began, a majority of Americans supported the invasion of Iraq. But the invasion and the occupation also received much criticism, both inside and outside the United States. Before the war began, antiwar protesters held numerous demonstrations in the United States and in many other countries. Additional demonstrations took place throughout the invasion and occupation.
Many opponents of the war argued that it inspired anger and resentment among Arabs and Muslims toward the United States and its allies. Many people believed such hostility caused an increase in terrorist violence against U.S. targets. Outrage over the coalition’s activities increased sharply in April and May 2004, when evidence surfaced that coalition soldiers had abused Iraqi prisoners, particularly at the Abu Ghraib prison near Baghdad.
Some people, including former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, argued that the invasion of Iraq violated international law. Some feared that the war, and disagreements over its timing and justification, weakened the UN and other international institutions.
Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair faced significant criticism over the conflict. Many critics charged that Bush and Blair used misleading, inaccurate, or false information to justify the war. Before the war, Bush and Blair said that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction. However, after the Hussein regime was overthrown, coalition inspectors failed to find any such weapons in Iraq. Investigators concluded that U.S. and British intelligence agencies provided inaccurate estimates of Iraq’s weapons capabilities before the war.
Bush and Blair also claimed that there were links between Iraq and al-Qa`ida. The Hussein regime did support terrorist groups fighting the governments of Turkey and Iran, as well as Palestinian terrorist groups. In addition, some contacts apparently occurred between Iraqi officials and Qa`ida representatives. However, there is no evidence that a working relationship ever developed between Iraq and al-Qa`ida.
Supporters of the war argued that it was necessary to prevent Iraq from developing weapons of mass destruction and supplying them to terrorist groups. They also argued that Hussein needed to be removed from power because he was a brutal dictator. Hussein had authorized the extermination of hundreds of thousands of his own people, and he had shown disregard for the fundamental principles of international relations.
By 2004, the Bush administration had made democracy in Iraq a central goal of the war. It argued that if Iraq successfully developed a democratic government, democracy would then spread throughout the Middle East. But as the conflict dragged on, worldwide public opinion had increasingly come to oppose the continuing U.S. military presence in Iraq.
